Dee Finney's blog June 2, 2012 page 233 KIDNAPPING 1925

THE FIERY CROSS - MEANIING

The Fiery cross is the English language term for a piece of wood, such as a baton, that North Europeans, e.g. Scotsmen and Scandinavians, used to send to rally people for things (assemblies) for defence or rebellion (if beacons were not appropriate).

Scotland

In Scotland the "fiery cross", known as the Crann Tara was used as a declaration of war, which required all clan members to rally to the defence of the area. The practice is described in the novels and poetry of Sir Walter Scott. A small burning cross or charred piece of wood would be carried from town to town. The most recent known use there was in 1745, during the Jacobite Rising. Crann Tàra – “The gathering beam, a signal formally used on occasion of insult or impending danger, to summon a clan to arms. It was a piece of wood, half burnt and dipped in blood, in token of the revenge by fire and sword awaiting those clansmen who did not immediately answer the summons. It was passed from one permanently appointed messenger to another, and in this manner the alarm was spread across the largest districts in an incredibly short time. In 1745 the crann tàra traversed the wide district of Breadalbane, upwards of 30 miles in three hours.” (Dwelly, E. 1973: 264). [1], the best part of a century before the foundation of the KKK. Although many of the members of the KKK were descended from immigrants from Scotland, there is no evidence to suggest that their ancestors brought this tradition with them to America. The name Crann Tara was used for a Scottish Gaelic current affairs programme on Grampian Television (ITV).^{[citation
needed]}

A similar practice existed in the Isle of Man.^{[citation
needed]}

The most recent use of the Fiery Cross in Scotland was not during the Forty-Five. In 1820 over 800 fighting men of Clan Grant was gathered, by the passing of the Fiery Cross, to come to the aid of their Clan Lord and his sister in the village of Elgin. See http://www.clangrant-us.org/history.htm

Scandinavia

When an enemy had arrived, fiery crosses (Old Swedish: buþkafle (sg.)) were sent in all directions. In Sweden, they consisted of clubs, or just wooden chunks, and they were charred on one end and had a string attached to the other end, as a sign. In Norway, it was an arrow. Olaus Magnus (1555) relates that the one who did not bring the cross to the next village would be hanged and his homestead burnt down.

When the people were assembled to a thing, the object was in the shape of an axe, or if the meeting concerned blasphemy, it was a cross.

The objects were signed with runes or other marks in order to indicate the reason for the assembly (e.g. election of king at the Stone of Mora), and who had sent them. During the Middle Ages, using buþkaflar was the official method of assembling people, and they were only allowed to be carved by certain officials, e.g. governors and sheriffs.

They were especially efficient, however, when they were used to levy people against royal oppression and high taxes. After the great Dance of Dalarna uprising, there were strong checks placed on the use of fiery crosses.

In Sweden, the fiery crosses were standardized during the village reorganizations in 1742, and it was at the village level that they were frequently used. During the 19th and 20th centuries, more specific messages were attached to the clubs or inserted into a hollow space. Still in the early 20th century, there was a paragraph in Swedish law that stated that the fiery cross would be sent between the villages if there was a forest fire.^{[citation
needed]}

[edit] References

Nationalencyklopedin
Dwelly, E., (1973), “The Illustrated Gaelic English Dictionary” 8th Edition, Gairm Publications, Glasgow.
Wade, Wyn Craig. The Fiery Cross: The Ku Klux Klan in America. New York: Simon and Schuster (1987).

This article contains content from the Owl Edition of Nordisk familjebok, a Swedish encyclopedia published between 1904 and 1926, now in the public domain.

The Truth About The Fiery Cross

and it's relation to the Ku Klux Klan

Let's finally set the record straight on this fiery cross controversy. I went to a Catholic grammar school and Catholic high school. We studied the origins of the fiery cross and its religious symbolism in class. Now here it is contrary to anyone else's propaganda.

According to church doctrine the first Christian Roman Emperor, Constantine, beheld a vision of a fiery cross in the sky on the eve of a battle. With the fiery cross vision in the sky were the words: "With this sign ye shall conquer." Constantine adopted the fiery cross as his symbol on his shield and won the battle. That's how it all got started and since then the fiery cross has been a religious symbol not only for the Catholic Church, but numerous Protestant churches as well. As a religious symbol these churches use the fiery cross in various ways.

Does it make any difference whether or not the cross is drawn or painted burning, or is actually lighted with fire? Have you ever stopped to think of just how many times God and fire are connected in the Bible? The Bible often uses fire as a symbol of God. In Deuteronomy 4:24 and in Hebrews 12:29, God is referred to as a consuming fire. In Malachi 3:2, the promised Messiah is referred to as a refiner's fire. In Mathew 3:11, John the Baptist speaks of Christ saying, "He shall baptize you with the Holy Ghost and with fire." In Exodus chapter three, God spoke to Moses out of a burning bush. In chapter 14 of Exodus, God came down as a pillar of fire. In Genesis chapter 19:24-25, Leviticus 10, Second Chronicles 7, and First Kings 18, Second Kings 2, God is again and again symbolized with fire, and fire gives light. Now the cross has been long established as the symbol of Christ and Christ is the Light of the world. The Gospel of John 1:4-5 states: "In Him (Christ) was life and the life was the light of men. And the light shineth in the darkness and the darkness grasped it not." Thus, this passage has been symbolized by illuminating a cross with fire at night.

So what's so hard to figure out about that? I wish to point out here, that recently I have seen on TV documentaries several deliberate distortions. I have seen the fiery cross of Constantine's vision being changed to a vision of just a cross, not a flaming or fiery one. I've recently seen the cross being dropped all together and replaced with the cross keys of the church. This is deliberate lying on the part of modern propagandists for the sake of brain washing a gullible public with politically correct rubbish. They are deliberately trying to change every symbol of Christianity into a symbol of racist hate. The Christian religion is being twisted and perverted by the powers of anti-Christ right before our very eyes.

Now, how did the Ku Klux Klan get tied up with all this? As I've said in other sections of this web page, the original KKK did not use the fiery cross. In the 47 volumes that make up the Ku Klux Report to Congress there is not one newspaper, not one eye witness, not one ex-Klansman, not one surviving victim who makes a reference to a fiery cross of any kind during the era of the original KKK. The Klan - fiery cross "link" is the work of fiction writer, Thomas Dixon, in his novel, "The Clansman". When questioned years later as to why he did that, Dixon said that he put the fiery cross into his Klan novel because his Uncle had told him that on one occasion the Klan used a small fiery cross as a signal light. This one use of a small fiery cross by a local Klan unit may not have even happened! However, when D.W. Griffith made the Dixon novel in to the epic motion picture, "The Birth of a Nation", Griffith embellished the fictitious usage of a fiery cross by the Klan. He knew a good movie prop when he saw one.

Then came Col. Simmons who revived the KKK in 1915. He was a former Methodist circuit minister and as you saw above, the fiery cross is a Methodist religious symbol. After he saw Birth of a Nation, he quickly incorporated the fiery cross as a major ceremonial prop in his revived Klan. However, the use of fiery crosses were quickly misinterpreted on one hand and on the other, unauthorized use of fiery crosses by local units led to misuse and then, abuse by renegade Klansmen and pranksters. The revival Klan disbanded in 1944.

The Klan was revived again in 1946 and the fiery cross was kept as a ceremonial prop. But during the violent 1960's Civil Rights era renegade Klans and rabid rednecks truly abused the fiery cross and did use it as an act of intimidation, terror, and lit it in some cases as to make it a part of arson. The modern media, with its beloved yellow journalism, lies, falsehoods, half truths, and distortions (in other words, politically correct brain washing) was always quick to run wild with such incidents for the sake of its self serving sensationalism. (So what else is new?)

So now what? Well, recently various wannabe Klan groups have held their imitation cross lightings against the orders of the police who have cited various newly passed federal, state, or local laws regarding such. They then found themselves on the losing end in court room cases because these amateurs couldn't even defend their use of the fiery cross by proving it a well established religious symbol and thus protected under the First Amendment. Again, establishment media was quick to carry on its anti-Christ propaganda campaign and has all but demonized the ceremony and defamed the symbolism.

But! All these pipsqueak Klans claim to be the direct descendent Klan of the original (hence, true) Ku Klux Klan So why, then, do they need to use the fiery cross at all when the original Klan never used it? If these Klans were to singularly model themselves after the revival Klan and bring back all the ceremonies, degree work, and Klankraft of that Klan as a great fraternal order, then I could see them still using the fiery cross, in private or where public permission had been given (whether that permission had to be obtained after a court battle or not). But these wannabe Klans still consider themselves as a group of regulators as was the original KKK. While the more extreme illegal Klans actually consider themselves in rebellion against our Constitutional Free Republic and seek to impose a dictatorship. To regulate or purge our government of political prostitutes and New World Order traitors is one thing. To advocate the destruction of our Constitution and Freedom is another. But either way why do these "Klans" want to burn a cross when they neither practice, nor even understand its deep religious meaning? Ignorance, that's why. These idiots are now starting to have swastika lightings at the same time at some of their rallies. A pagan symbol being considered the same are Christian symbol? Talk about a contradiction, how dumb can they get? We don't call them illegal Klans for nothing. But contradictions are their stock in trade. I've seen their web pages and literature where they all claim to be a strictly legal, law abiding, moral, Christian fraternal order. Yet, I've gone to their rallies and have dealt with them in person. They break the law like crazy. They are always losing major lawsuits or going to jail. They live drunken, drug abusing immoral lives, and the last thing they ever do is anything fraternal or Christian. They lie, they steal, they slander and stab everyone in the back including themselves. Then they wonder why no normal people want to join their little sham con Klans.

A true copy, by order of the Great Blufustin, GSKKK

The Ku Klux Klan is not a church

and was never intended to be one!

The KKK is not a self declaring belief system. No one is born a Klan
sman or has the rig
ht to call themselves one unless they are an actual member of a legitimate branch of the KKK. The Ku Klux Klan is not something you make up as you go along. The original KKK defined itself, defined its structure, and defined its activities and wrote them all down in the original Prescripts in 1867. They revised and amended the Prescripts in 1868. That was it. There were specific rules and regulations to follow if you were to be a part of the Klan. If anyone takes the time to read the original Prescripts (available from us in our booklets section) you will plainly see that in no way, shape, or form was the KKK intended to be a church, cult, or religion of any kind. What was the original Klan? After it's beginning as a harmless fraternal order it was reorganized under Grand Wizard Forrest to be a protective society of regulators who fought to restore law and order and protect the rights of the disenfranchised militarily conquered South.

When the Klan was revived in 1915, Imperial Wizard Simmons, again, wrote everything down. The rules, regulations, ceremonies, activities, functions, structure and so on were not only written down, but copyrighted and placed on public record for all the world to see. (I refer you to the Kloran, Klan Constitution, Klan in action booklet, Klansman's Manual, and all the other defining books and ceremonies, called Klankraft, available from us in our booklets section.) Imperial Wizards Simmons, Evans, and Colescott made it plain and clear that the KKK was not a religion, church, or political party. It was a Protestant Fraternal Order.

When the Klan was revived in 1946, by Grand Dragon Green (He did not take the title of Grand or Imperial Wizard for technical reasons concerning the IRS and the Klan's prior disbandment.), Green, too, established his Klan as a Fraternal Order. And it was carried through as such right up to the 1990's. Though it occasionally engaged in political activity and other things, whenever a branch of the Klan established itself in a new area, incorporated, or was chartered it always did so as a Fraternal Order in the 20th century.

So, how did this "Klan as a church" nonsense come about. It was the idea of wannabe wizard Ray Larsen (it's an alias he uses, but I won't give his real name here). In the mid 1990's, Imperial Wizard James Venable died and his National Knights of the Ku Klux Klan (an authentic Klan organization), which had been fading for years, disbanded. Ray Larsen was quick to claim the name of the National Knights as the name for his own miniscule group of assorted odd personalities. He then told me, at one of his rallies and by phone call a few times, that he was thinking of declaring his Klan a church. For the above stated reasons, I told him that that was an absurd idea and that the original Klansmen would flip in their graves if they heard of it. As usual, these upstarts don't listen to common sense, nor do they follow the rules and established facts of history. So he went off on his wild tangent and declared himself "Reverend" Ray Larsen (who isn't honest enough with you to use his real name), Imperial Wizard of the Church of the National Knights of the KKK. The idea was not an act of zealous faith. It was just a political ploy to attempt to gain better legal protection under the Constitution.

Following in his tracks came the renegade Jeff Berry. Jeff Berry split off from the Liberty Knights of the KKK (who had, themselves, split off from the Templar Knights of the KKK) in the mid 1990's. Berry couldn't figure out what to name his new "Klan". He called me about it and I suggested the name "American Knights" which he liked and adopted for his own. (Keep in mind, this guy's going to save the whole white race, yet he couldn't even figure out what to call his own Klan and had to ask my help.) Shortly afterward, Berry took to Larsen's idea and declared himself, "Reverend" Jeff Berry, Imperial Wizard of the Church of the American Knights of the KKK. Since then a number of tag along "Klans" have done the same. But it is the dumbest thing they could do and it is a complete misuse of the Klan name and misinterpretation of the Klan itself. These Klans don't need enemies when they do such a good job of fouling things up themselves. (Kook Klutz Klowns.)

If anyone takes the time to look past the shabby superficial lip service they pay to Christianity, you'll see nothing religious or Christian about them at all. Ray Larsen openly associates with, and has as speakers at his events, publicly known illegal drug abusers, such as the many times convicted neo-nazi Ted Dunn. "Reverend" Jeff on the other hand is presently serving a seven year prison sentence for threatening a news reporter with a gun. Prior to that, "Rev." Jeff was caught and prosecuted for cheating senior citizens with his fly by night home repair business. He over charged for work he did and charged others for work he did not do. Way to go "Rev." Jeff. A man of God (???) cheating senior citizens. To get himself out of the legal mess he agreed to become an informer for the police. He provided the police with so much information it resulted in 70 arrests. Now, he was not informing on Klan organizations but drug abusers. In that respect he deserves a medal. But, I live a clean life. I don't hang around with the drug using crowd. If I even suspect it, I disassociate with any such individuals because it is illegal and I am a law abiding citizen. It is not a Christian life style. I couldn't even point to anyone and be able to say I even suspect them of using illegal drugs. I have always kept myself separate form all that.

I don't know what kind of low social life Jeff Berry had, but how could a man of God be so steeped into the drug underworld, and so trusted by them, as to be able to provide enough information as to get 70 drug law breakers arrested? Does all this sound like the work of a church to you? How can they even call it a church when at most of their meetings all they do is talk about hanging or shooting somebody? Before he went to prison, Berry's property was shot at several times and since his incarceration his church klan has faded.

The moral of all this is don't fly in the face of God and mock God by declaring something a church when it is not. Don't exploit religion for the sake of politics and don't claim Godliness when you are engaged in criminal activity; unless you want the wrath of God to come down on your head, too. Neither should you claim to honor the memory of the true Klansmen of the past and then mock their memory by distorting the Klans they founded so far out of shape as to make them unrecognizable.

One final note. It is not my intended purpose to stir things up and make others look bad. But, these Klans are public organizations and their leaders are public figures. The public has the right to know the truth. Any Klan built on a foundation of lies is doomed to fail. Anyone wishing to affiliate with any Klan organization must take the time to know and understand the true principles, intentions, and purposes of the KKK. They must look past the mask of the leaders they, in fact, know nothing about. What is their past, it that their real name, what is their occupation and educational level? Are they just con men looking for easy money? Are they engaged in any real activity to attain their claimed goals? Look past the self serving propaganda before you get suckered into an illegal Klan that gets busted by the law for assorted criminal activities. Be warned, if you lie with dogs, you die with dogs.

comments about this fiery cross article should be sentn here: http://www.kkklan.com/fierycross.htm

Pre-17th century

(Information in this section primarily taken from Slavery in Colonial United States.)

1565

The colony of St. Augustine in Florida became the first permanent European settlement in what would become the US, and included an unknown number of African slaves.

[edit] 17th century

1619

The first record of African slavery in English Colonial America.

1640

John Punch, a black indentured servant, ran away with two white indentured servants, James Gregory and Victor. After the three were captured, the white men were sentenced to four more years of servitude but Punch was required to serve Virginia planter Hugh Gym for life. It is one of the first cases in which lifetime indentured servitude was based on race.^[1]^[2]

1654

John Casor, a black man, became the first legally-recognized slave-for-life in the Virginia colony.

1662

Virginia law defined that children of enslaved mothers followed the status of their mothers and were considered slaves, regardless of their father's status.

1672

Royal African Company is founded, allowing slaves to be shipped from Africa to the colonies in North America. This company allowed England to enter the slave trade.

1676

Both free and enslaved African Americans fought in Bacon's Rebellion along with English colonists.

[edit] 18th century

[edit] 19th century

[edit] 1800–1859

Early 19th century

first Black Codes enacted.

1800

August 30 – Gabriel Prosser's attempt to lead a slave rebellion in Richmond, Virginia is suppressed.

1807

Act Prohibiting Importation of Slaves

1808

January 1 – The importation of slaves into the United States is banned; this is also the earliest day under the United States Constitution that an amendment could be made restricting slavery.

1816

The first separate black denomination of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (AME) is founded by Richard Allen, who is elected its first bishop.
The American Colonization Society is begun by Robert Finley, to send free African Americans to what is to become Liberia in Africa.^[5]

1820

March 6 – The Missouri Compromise allows for the entry as states of Maine and Missouri, and decides which future states slavery would be allowed in.
The British West Africa Squadron's slave trade suppression activities are assisted by forces from the United States Navy, starting in 1820 with the USS Cyane. With the Webster–Ashburton Treaty of 1842, the relationship is formalised and they jointly run the Africa Squadron.

1821

The African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church is officially formed.

1822

July 14 – Denmark Vesey's slave rebellion in Charleston, South Carolina is suppressed.

1829

September – David Walker begins publication of the abolitionist pamphlet Walker's Appeal.

1830

October 28 - Josiah Henson, a slave who fled and arrived in Canada, is an author, abolitionist, minister and the inspiration behind the book Uncle Tom's Cabin.^[6]

1831

William Lloyd Garrison begins publication of the abolitionist newspaper The Liberator.
August – Nat Turner leads the most successful slave rebellion in U.S. history. The rebellion is suppressed, but only after many deaths.

1832

Sarah Harris Fayerweather, an aspiring teacher, is admitted to Prudence Crandall's all-girl school in Canterbury, Connecticut, resulting in the first racially-integrated schoolhouse in the United States.^[7] Her admission led to the school's forcible closure under the Connecticut Black Law of 1833.^[8]

1833

The American Anti-Slavery Society, an abolitionist society, is founded by William Lloyd Garrison and Arthur Tappan. Frederick Douglass becomes a key leader of the society.

1837

February - The first Institute of Higher Education for African-Americans is founded. Founded as the African Institute in February 1837 and renamed the Institute of Coloured Youth (ICY) in April 1837 and now known as Cheyney University of Pennsylvania.

1839

July 2 – Slaves revolt on the La Amistad, resulting in a Supreme Court case (see United States v. The Amistad).

1840

The Liberty Party breaks away from the American Anti-Slavery Society due to grievances with William Lloyd Garrison's leadership.

1842

The U.S. Supreme Court rules, in Prigg v. Pennsylvania (1842), that states do not have to offer aid in the hunting or recapture of slaves, greatly weakening the fugitive slave law of 1793.

1843

June 1 – Isabella Baumfree, a former slave, changes her name to Sojourner Truth and begins to preach for the abolition of slavery.
August – Henry Highland Garnet delivers his famous speech Call to Rebellion.

1847

Frederick Douglass begins publication of the abolitionist newspaper the North Star.
Joseph Jenkins Roberts of Virginia becomes the first president of Liberia.

1849

Roberts v. Boston seeks to end racial discrimination in Boston public schools.
Harriet Tubman escapes from slavery to Philadelphia, and begins helping other slaves to escape via the Underground Railroad.

1850

September 18 – As part of the Compromise of 1850, Congress passes the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 which requires any federal official to arrest anyone suspected of being a runaway slave.

1852

March 20 – Uncle Tom's Cabin by Harriet Beecher Stowe is published.

1853

December – Clotel; or, The President's Daughter is the first novel published by an African-American.

1855

John Mercer Langston is one of the first African Americans elected to public office when elected as a town clerk in Ohio.

1856

May 21 – The Sacking of Lawrence in Bleeding Kansas.
May 25 – John Brown, whom Abraham Lincoln called a "misguided fanatic", retaliates for Lawrence's sacking in the Pottawatomie Massacre.
Wilberforce University is founded by collaboration between Methodist Episcopal and African Methodist Episcopal representatives.

1857

March 6 – In Dred Scott v. Sandford, the Supreme Court upholds slavery. This decision is regarded as a key cause of the American Civil War.

1859

Harriet E. Wilson writes the autobiographical novel Our Nig.
In Ableman v. Booth the Supreme Court of the United States holds that state courts cannot issue rulings that contradict the decisions of federal courts, thus upholding the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850.

First Reading of the Emancipation Proclamation –

Lincoln edit] 1860–1874

1861

April 12 – The American Civil War begins (secessions began in December 1860), and lasts until April 9, 1865. Tens of thousands of enslaved African Americans of all ages escaped to Union lines for freedom. Contraband camps were set up in some areas, where blacks started learning to read and write. Others traveled with the Union Army. By the end of the war, more than 180,000 African Americans, mostly from the South, fought with the Union Army and Navy as members of the US Colored Troops and sailors.
May 2 – The first North American military unit with African-American officers is the 1st Louisiana Native Guard of the Confederate Army (disbanded in February 1862).
August 6 – The first of the Confiscation Acts authorizes the confiscation of any Confederate property, including all slaves who fought or worked for the Confederate military. The second act in mid-1862 extends this.

1862

March 13 – Act Prohibiting the Return of Slaves
September 22 – Announcement of the Emancipation Proclamation, after the Battle of Antietam, to go into effect January 1, 1863.

1863–1877 Reconstruction

1863

January 1 – The Emancipation Proclamation goes into effect.
January 31 – U.S. Army commissions the 1st South Carolina Volunteers, a combat unit made up of escaped slaves.
May 22 – U.S. Army recruits United States Colored Troops. (The 54th Massachusetts Volunteer Regiment would be featured in the 1989 film Glory.)
July – Irish ethnic protests against the draft in New York City turn into riots against blacks – the so-called New York Draft Riots.

1864

April 12 – The Battle of Fort Pillow, which results in controversy about whether a massacre of surrendered African-American troops was conducted or condoned.

1865

March 3 – Congress passes the bill that forms the Freedman's Bureau.
December 18 – The Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution abolishes slavery in the U.S.
Shaw Institute is founded in Raleigh, North Carolina, as the first black college in the South.
Atlanta College is founded.
Every southern state passes Black Codes that restrict the freedmen, who were emancipated but not yet full citizens.

1866

April 9 – The Civil Rights Act of 1866 is passed by Congress over Johnson's presidential veto. All persons born in the United States are now citizens.
The Ku Klux Klan is formed in Pulaski, Tennessee, made up of white Confederate veterans; it becomes a paramilitary insurgent group to enforce white supremacy.
July – New Orleans white citizens riot against blacks.
September 21 – The U.S. Army regiment of Buffalo Soldiers (African Americans) is formed.
The Second Freedmen's Bureau Act would have provided longer enforcement of rights for freedmen, but it is vetoed by President Andrew Johnson.

1867

February 14 - Augusta Institute, now known as Morehouse College, is founded in the basement of Springfield Baptist Church in Augusta, Georgia.^[9]
March 2 – Howard University is founded in Washington, D.C.

1868

April 1 – Hampton Institute is founded in Hampton, Virginia.
July 9 – The Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution's Section 1 requires due process and equal protection.
Through 1877, whites attack black and white Republicans to suppress voting. Every election cycle is accompanied by violence, increasing in the 1870s.
Elizabeth Keckly publishes Behind the Scenes (or, Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House).

1870

February 3 – The Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution guarantees the right of male citizens of the United States to vote regardless of race, color or previous condition of servitude.
February 25 – Hiram Rhodes Revels becomes the first black member of the Senate (see African Americans in the United States Congress).
Christian Methodist Episcopal Church founded.

1871

October 10 – Octavius Catto, a civil rights activist, is murdered during harassment of blacks on Election Day in Philadelphia.
US Civil Rights Act of 1871 passed, also known as the Klan Act.

1872

December 11 – P. B. S. Pinchback is sworn in as the first black member of the U.S. House of Representatives.
Disputed gubernatorial election in Louisiana cause political violence for more than two years. Both Republican and Democratic governors hold inaugurations and certify local officials.

1873

April 14 – In the Slaughter-House Cases the Supreme Court votes 5–4 for a narrow reading of the Fourteenth Amendment. The court also discusses dual citizenship: State citizens and U.S. citizens.
Easter, the Colfax Massacre – More than 100 blacks in the Red River area of Louisiana are killed when attacked by white militia after defending Republicans in local office – continuing controversy from gubernatorial election.
Coushatta Massacre – Republican officeholders are run out of town and murdered by white militia before leaving the state – four of six were relatives of a Louisiana state senator, a northerner who had settled in the South, married into a local family and established a plantation. Five to twenty black witnesses are also killed.

1874

Founding of paramilitary groups that act as the "military arm of the Democratic Party": the White League in Louisiana and the Red Shirts in Mississippi, and North and South Carolina. They terrorize blacks and Republicans, turning them out of office, killing some, disrupting rallies, and suppressing voting.
September – In New Orleans, continuing political violence erupts related to the still-contested gubernatorial election of 1872. Thousands of the White League armed militia march into New Orleans, then the seat of government, where they outnumber the integrated city police and black state militia forces. They defeat Republican forces and demand that Gov. Kellogg leave office. The Democratic candidate McEnery is installed and White Leaguers occupy the capitol, state house and arsenal. This was called the "Battle of Liberty Place". The White League and McEnery withdraw after three days in advance of federal troops arriving to reinforce the Republican state government.

[edit] 1875–1899

1875

March 1 – Civil Rights Act of 1875 signed.
The Mississippi Plan to intimidate blacks and suppress black voter registration and voting.

1876

July 8 – The Hamburg Massacre occurs when local people riot against African Americans who were trying to celebrate the Fourth of July.
varied – White Democrats regain power in many southern state legislatures and pass the first Jim Crow laws.

1877

With the Compromise of 1877, Republican Rutherford B. Hayes withdraws federal troops from the South in exchange for being elected President of the United States, causing the collapse of the last three remaining Republican state governments. The compromise formally ends the Reconstruction era of the United States.

1879

spring – Thousands of African Americans refuse to live under segregation in the South and migrate to Kansas. They become known as Exodusters.

1880

In Strauder v. West Virginia, the Supreme Court rules that African Americans could not be excluded from juries.
During the 1880s, African Americans in the South reach a peak of numbers in being elected and holding local offices, even while white Democrats are working to assert control at state level.

1881

April 11 – Spelman Seminary is founded as the Atlanta Baptist Female Seminary.
July 4 – Booker T. Washington opens the Tuskegee Normal and Industrial Institute in Tuskegee, Alabama.

1882

A biracial populist coalition achieves power in Virginia (briefly). The legislature founds the first public college for African Americans, Virginia Normal and Collegiate Institute, as well as the first mental hospital for African Americans, both near Petersburg, Virginia. The hospital was established in December 1869, at Howard's Grove Hospital, a former Confederate unit, but is moved to a new campus in 1882.

1884

Mark Twain's Adventures of Huckleberry Finn is published, featuring the admirable African-American character Jim.
Judy W. Reed, of Washington, D.C., and Sarah E. Goode, of Chicago, are the first African-American women inventors to receive patents. Signed with an "X", Reed's patent no. 305,474, granted September 23, 1884, is for a dough kneader and roller. Goode's patent for a cabinet bed, patent no. 322,177, is issued on July 14, 1885. Goode, the owner of a Chicago furniture store, invented a folding bed that could be formed into a desk when not in use.
Ida B. Wells sues the Chesapeake, Ohio & South Western Railroad Company for its use of segregated "Jim Crow" cars.

1886

Norris Wright Cuney becomes the chairman of the Texas Republican Party, the most powerful role held by any African American in the South during the 19th century.

1887

October 3 – The State Normal School for Colored Students, which would become Florida A&M University, is founded.

1888

October 16 – In Civil Rights Cases, the United States Supreme Court strikes down the Civil Rights Act of 1875 as unconstitutional.

1890

Mississippi, with a white Democrat-dominated legislature, passes a new constitution that effectively disfranchises most blacks through voter registration and electoral requirements, e.g., poll taxes, residency tests and literacy tests. This shuts them out of the political process, including service on juries and in local offices.
By 1900 two-thirds of the farmers in the bottomlands of the Mississippi Delta are African Americans who cleared and bought land after the Civil War.^[10]

1892

Ida B. Wells publishes her pamphlet Southern Horrors: Lynch Law in All Its Phases.

1895

September 18 – Booker T. Washington delivers his Atlanta Compromise address at the Cotton States and International Exposition in Atlanta, Georgia.
* W. E. B. Du Bois is the first African-American to be awarded a Ph.D by Harvard University.

1896

May 18 – In Plessy v. Ferguson, the Supreme Court upholds de jure racial segregation of "separate but equal" facilities. (see Jim Crow laws for historical discussion).
The National Association of Colored Women is formed by the merger of smaller groups.
As one of the earliest Black Hebrew Israelites in the United States, William Saunders Crowdy re-establishes the Church of God and Saints of Christ.
George Washington Carver is invited by Booker T. Washington to head the Agricultural Department at what would become Tuskegee University. His work would revolutionize farming – he found about 300 uses for peanuts.

1898

Louisiana enacts the first state-wide grandfather clause that provides exemption for illiterate whites to voter registration literacy test requirements.
In Williams v. Mississippi the Supreme Court upholds the voter registration and election provisions of Mississippi's constitution because they applied to all citizens. Effectively, however, they disenfranchise blacks and poor whites. The result is that other southern states copy these provisions in their new constitutions and amendments through 1908, disfranchising most African Americans and tens of thousands of poor whites until the 1960s.

1899

September 18 – The "Maple Leaf Rag" is an early ragtime composition for piano by Scott Joplin.

[edit] 20th century

[edit] 1900–1924

1900

Since the Civil War, 30,000 African-American teachers had been trained and put to work in the South. The majority of blacks had become literate.^[11]

1901

Booker T. Washington's autobiography Up from Slavery is published.
Benjamin Tillman, senator from South Carolina, comments on Theodore Roosevelt's dining with Booker T. Washington: “The action of President Roosevelt in entertaining that nigger will necessitate our killing a thousand niggers in the South before they learn their place again.”

1903

September – W. E. B. Du Bois's article The Talented Tenth published.
W. E. B. Du Bois's seminal work The Souls of Black Folk is published.

1904

May 15 – Sigma Pi Phi, the first African-American Greek-letter organization, is founded by African-American men as a professional organization, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Orlando, Florida hires its first black postman.

1905

July 11 – First meeting of the Niagara Movement, an interracial group to work for civil rights.

1906

The Brownsville Affair, which eventually involves President Roosevelt.
December 4 – African-American men found Alpha Phi Alpha at Cornell University, the first intercollegiate fraternity for African-American men.

1907

National Primitive Baptist Convention of the U.S.A. formed.

1908

December 26 – Jack Johnson wins the World Heavyweight Title.
Alpha Kappa Alpha – At Howard University, African-American college women found the first college sorority for African-American women.

1909

February 12 – Planned first meeting of group which would become the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), an interracial group devoted to civil rights. The meeting actually occurs on May 31, but February 12 is normally cited as the NAACP's founding date.
May 31 – The National Negro Committee meets and is formed; it will be the precursor to the NAACP.

1910

May 30 – The National Negro Committee chooses "National Association for the Advancement of Colored People" as its organization name.
September 29 – Committee on Urban Conditions Among Negroes formed; the next year it will merge with other groups to form the National Urban League.
The NAACP begins publishing The Crisis.

1913

The Moorish Science Temple of America, a religious organization, is founded by Noble Drew Ali (Timothy Drew).

1914

Newly elected president Woodrow Wilson orders physical re-segregation of federal workplaces and employment after nearly 50 years of integrated facilities.^[12]^[13]^[14]

1915

February 8 – The Birth of a Nation is released to film theaters. The NAACP protests in cities across the country, convincing some not to show the film.
June 21 – In Guinn v. United States, the Supreme Court rules against grandfather clauses used to deny blacks the vote.
September 9 – Professor Carter G. Woodson founds the Association for the Study of African American Life and History in Chicago.
A schism from the National Baptist Convention, USA, Inc. forms the National Baptist Convention of America, Inc.

1916

January – Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Negro Life and History begins publishing the Journal of Negro History, the first academic journal devoted to the study of African-American history.
March 23 – Marcus Garvey arrives in the U.S. (see Garveyism).
Los Angeles hires the country's first black female police officer.^{[citation
needed]}
The Great Migration begins and lasts until 1940. Approximately one and a half million African-Americans move from the Southern United States to the North and Midwest. More than five million migrate in the Second Great Migration from 1940–1970, which includes more destinations in California and the West.

1917

May–June – East St. Louis Riot
In Buchanan v. Warley, the United States Supreme Court upholds that racially segregated housing violates the 14th Amendment.

1918

Orlando's first black doctor opens practice.
Viola Pettus, an African-American nurse in Marathon, Texas, wins attention for her courageous care of victims of the Spanish Influenza, including members of the Ku Klux Klan.

1919

summer – Red Summer of 1919 riots: Chicago, Washington, D.C.; Knoxville, Indianapolis, and elsewhere.
September 28 – Omaha Race Riot of 1919, Nebraska.
October 1–5 – Elaine Race Riot, Phillips County, Arkansas. Numerous blacks are convicted by an all-white jury or plead guilty. In Moore v. Dempsey (1923), the Supreme Court overturns six convictions for denial of due process under the Fourteenth Amendment.

1920

February 13 – Negro National League (1920–1931) established.
Fritz Pollard and Bobby Marshall are the first two African-American players in the National Football League (NFL). Pollard goes on to become the first African-American coach in the NFL.

1921

May 23 – Shuffle Along is the first major African American hit musical on Broadway.
May 31 – Tulsa Race Riot, Oklahoma
Bessie Coleman becomes the first African American to earn a pilot's license.

1923

January 1 – 7 Rosewood massacre: Six African Americans and two whites die in a week of violence when a white woman in Rosewood, Florida, claims she was beaten and raped by a black man.
February 19 – In Moore v. Dempsey, the Supreme Court holds that mob-dominated trials violate the Due Process Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.
Jean Toomer's novel Cane is published.

1924

Spelman Seminary becomes Spelman College.

[edit] 1925–1949

1925

spring – American Negro Labor Congress founded.
August 8 – 35,000 Ku Klux Klan members march in Washington, D.C. (see List of protest marches on Washington, D.C.)
Countee Cullen publishes his first collection of poems in Color.
Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters organized.
The Harlem Renaissance is named after the anthology The New Negro, edited by Alain Locke (also known as the New Negro Movement).

1926

The Harlem Globetrotters founded.
Historian Carter G. Woodson proposes Negro History Week.
Corrigan v Buckley challenges deed restrictions by which a white seller could not sell to a black buyer. As opposed to Buchanan v. Warley, this is a step in the wrong direction as the US Supreme Court rules in favor of Buckley, stating that the 14th Amendment does not apply because Washington, DC is a city and not a state, thereby rendering the Due Process Clause inapplicable. Also, that the Due Process Clause does not apply to private agreements.

1928

Claude McKay's Home to Harlem wins the Harmon Gold Award for Literature.

1929

The League of United Latin American Citizens, the first organization to fight for the civil rights of Hispanic Americans, is founded in Corpus Christi, Texas.
John Hope becomes president of Atlanta University. Graduate classes are offered in liberal arts subjects, making Atlanta University the first predominantly black university to offer graduate education.
unknown - Hallelujah! is released and is one of the first films to star an all black cast.

1930

The League of Struggle for Negro Rights is founded in New York City.
Jessie Daniel Ames forms the Association of Southern Women for the Prevention of Lynching. She gets 40,000 white women to sign a pledge against lynching and for change in the South.^[15]

1931

March 25 – Scottsboro Boys arrested. All are later freed, pardoned or paroled. The film Heavens Fall was made about the incident.
Walter Francis White becomes the executive secretary of the NAACP.

1932

The Tuskegee Study of Untreated Syphilis in the Negro Male begins.

1934

Wallace D. Fard, leader of the Nation of Islam, mysteriously disappears. He is succeeded by Elijah Muhammad.

1935

June 18 – In Murray v. Pearson, Thurgood Marshall and Charles Hamilton Houston of the NAACP successfully argue the landmark case in Maryland to open admissions to the University of Maryland School of Law on the basis of equal protection under the Fourteenth Amendment.

Jesse Owens wins gold medals in front of Hitler.

1936

August – Sprinter Jesse Owens wins four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics in Berlin.

1937

Zora Neale Hurston authors the novel Their Eyes Were Watching God
Southern Negro Youth Congress founded.

1938

Missouri ex rel. Gaines v. Canada

1939

Easter Sunday – Marian Anderson performs on the steps of the Lincoln Memorial in Washington, D.C. at the instigation of Secretary of Interior Harold Ickes after the Daughters of the American Revolution (DAR) refused permission for Anderson to sing to an integrated audience in Constitution Hall and the federally controlled District of Columbia Board of Education declined a request to use the auditorium of a white public high school.
Billie Holiday first performs "Strange Fruit" in New York City. The song, a protest against lynching written by Abel Meeropol under the pen name Lewis Allan, became a signature song for Holiday.
The Little League is formed, becoming the nation's first non-segregated youth sport.
August 21 – Five African-American men recruited and trained by African-American attorney Samuel Wilbert Tucker conduct a sit-in at the then-segregated Alexandria, Virginia, library and are arrested after being refused library cards.^[16]
September 21 – Followers of Father Divine and the International Peace Mission Movement join with workers to protest racially unfair hiring practices by conducting "a kind of customers' nickel sit down strike" in a restaurant.^[17]

1940s to 1970

Second Great Migration – In multiple acts of resistance, more than 5 million African Americans leave the violence and segregation of the South for jobs, education, and the chance to vote in northern, midwestern and California cities.

1940

February 12 – In Chambers v. Florida, the Supreme Court frees three black men who were coerced into confessing to a murder.
February 29 - Hattie McDaniel becomes the first African-American to win an Academy Award. She wins Best Supporting Actress for her performance as Mammy in Gone with the Wind.
October 25 – Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. is promoted to be the first African-American general in the U.S. Army.
Richard Wright authors Native Son
NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund is formed.

1941

January 25 – A. Philip Randolph proposes a March on Washington, effectively beginning the March on Washington Movement.
early 1941 – U.S. Army forms African-American air combat units, the Tuskegee Airmen.
June 25 – President Franklin Delano Roosevelt issues Executive Order 8802, the "Fair Employment Act", to require equal treatment and training of all employees by defense contractors.
Mitchell v US – the Interstate Commerce Clause is used to successfully desegregate seating on trains.

1942

Six non-violence activists in the Fellowship of Reconciliation — Bernice Fisher, James Russell Robinson, George Houser, James Farmer, Jr., Joe Guinn and Homer Jack — found the Committee on Racial Equality, which becomes Congress of Racial Equality.

1943

Doctor Charles R. Drew's achievements are recognized when he becomes the first African-American surgeon to serve as an examiner on the American Board of Surgery.
Lena Horne stars in the all African-American film Stormy Weather.

1944

April 3 – In Smith vs. Allwright, the Supreme Court rules that the whites-only Democratic Party primary in Texas was unconstitutional.^[18]
April 25 – The United Negro College Fund is incorporated.
July 17 – Port Chicago disaster, which led to the Port Chicago mutiny.
August 1–7 - Philadelphia transit strike of 1944 - a strike by white transit workers protesting against job advancement by black workers is broken by the U.S. military under the provisions of the Smith-Connally Act
November 7 – Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. is elected to the U.S. House of Representatives from Harlem, New York.
Miami hires its first black police officers.

1945–1975 Second Reconstruction/American Civil Rights Movement

1945

August – The first issue of Ebony.
Freeman Field Mutiny, where black officers attempt to desegregate an all-white officers club.

1946

June 3 – In Morgan v. Virginia, the US Supreme Court invalidates provisions of the Virginia Code which require the separation of white and colored passengers where applied to interstate bus transport. The state law is unconstitutional insofar as it is burdening interstate commerce – an area of federal jurisdiction.^[19]
In Florida, Daytona Beach, DeLand, Sanford, Fort Myers, Tampa, and Gainesville all have black police officers. So does Little Rock, Arkansas; Louisville, Kentucky; Charlotte, North Carolina; Austin, Houston, Dallas, San Antonio in Texas; Richmond, Virginia; Chattanooga and Knoxville in Tennessee
Renowned actor/singer Paul Robeson founds the American Crusade Against Lynching.

1947

April 9 – The Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) sends 16 men on the Journey of Reconciliation.
April 15 – Jackie Robinson plays his first game for the Brooklyn Dodgers, becoming the first black baseball player in professional baseball in 60 years.
John Hope Franklin authors the non-fiction book From Slavery to Freedom

1948

January 12 – In Sipuel v. Board of Regents of Univ. of Okla., the Supreme Court rules that the State of Oklahoma and the University of Oklahoma Law School could not deny admission based on race ("color").
May 3 – In Shelley v. Kraemer, and companion case Hurd v Hodge (ACLU) the Supreme Court rules that the government cannot enforce racially restrictive covenants and asserts that they are in conflict with the nation's public policy.
July 12 – Hubert Humphrey makes a controversial speech in favor of American civil rights at the Democratic National Convention.
July 26 – President Harry S. Truman issues Executive Order 9981 ordering the end of segregation in the Armed Forces.
Atlanta hires its first black police officers.

[edit] 1950–1959

For more detail during this period, see Freedom Riders website chronology

1950

June 5 – In McLaurin v. Oklahoma State Regents the Supreme Court rules that a public institution of higher learning could not provide different treatment to a student solely because of his race.
June 5 – In Sweatt v. Painter the Supreme Court rules that a separate-but-equal Texas law school was actually unequal, partly in that it deprived black students from the collegiality of future white lawyers.
June 5 – In Henderson v. United States the Supreme Court abolishes segregation in railroad dining cars.
The Leadership Conference on Civil Rights is created in Washington, DC to promote the enactment and enforcement of effective civil rights legislation and policy.
Orlando, Florida, hires its first black police officers.
Dr. Ralph Bunche wins the 1950 Nobel Peace Prize.
Chuck Cooper, Nathaniel Clifton and Earl Lloyd break the barriers into the NBA.

1951

April 23 – High school students in Farmville, Virginia, go on strike: the case Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward County is heard by the Supreme Court in 1954 as part of Brown v. Board of Education.
July 26 – The United States Army high command announces it will desegregate the Army.
December 24 – The home of NAACP activists Harry and Harriette Moore in Mims, Florida, is bombed by KKK group; both die of injuries.
December 28 – The Regional Council of Negro Leadership (RCNL) is founded in Cleveland, Mississippi by T.R.M. Howard, Amzie Moore, Aaron Henry, and other civil rights activists. Assisted by member Medgar Evers, the RCNL distributed more than 50,000 bumper stickers bearing the slogan, "Don't Buy Gas Where you Can't Use the Restroom." This campaign successfully pressured many Mississippi service stations to provide restrooms for blacks.

1952

January 28 – Briggs v. Elliott: after a District Court orders separate but equal school facilities in South Carolina, the Supreme Court agrees to hear the case as part of Brown v. Board of Education.
April 1 – Chancellor Collins J. Seitz finds for the black plaintiffs (Gebhart v. Belton, Gebhart v. Bulah) and orders the integration of Hockessin elementary and Claymont High School in Delaware based on assessment of "separate but equal" public school facilities required by the Delaware constitution.
September 4 – Eleven black students attend the first day of school at Claymont High School, Delaware, becoming the first black students in the 17 segregated states to integrate a white public school. The day occurs without incident or notice by the community.
September 5 – The Delaware State Attorney General informs Claymont Superintendent Stahl that the black students will have to go home because the case is being appealed. Stahl, the School Board and the faculty refuse and the students remain. The two Delaware cases are argued before the Warren Supreme Court by Redding, Greenberg and Marshall and are used as an example of how integration can be achieved peacefully. It was a primary influence in the Brown v. Board case. The students become active in sports, music and theater. The first two black students graduated in June 1954 just one month after the Brown v. Board case.
Ralph Ellison authors the novel Invisible Man which wins the National Book Award.

1953

August 13 – Executive Order 10479 signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower establishes the anti-discrimination Committee on Government Contracts.
September 1 – In the landmark case Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company, WAC Sarah Keys, represented by civil rights lawyer Dovey Roundtree, becomes the first black to challenge "separate but equal" in bus segregation before the Interstate Commerce Commission.
James Baldwin's semi-autobiographical novel Go Tell It on the Mountain is published.

1954

May 3 – In Hernandez v. Texas, the Supreme Court of the United States rules that Mexican Americans and all other racial groups in the United States are entitled to equal protection under the 14th Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.
May 17 – The Supreme Court rules against the "separate but equal" doctrine in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kans. and in Bolling v. Sharpe, thus overturning Plessy v. Ferguson.
July 11 – The first White Citizens' Council meeting takes place, in Mississippi.
July 30 – At a special meeting in Jackson, Mississippi called by Governor Hugh White, T.R.M. Howard of the Regional Council of Negro Leadership, along with nearly one hundred other black leaders, publicly refuse to support a segregationist plan to maintain "separate but equal" in exchange for a crash program to increase spending on black schools.
November – Charles Diggs, Jr., of Detroit is elected to Congress, the first African American elected from Michigan.
Frankie Muse Freeman is the lead attorney for the landmark NAACP case Davis et al. v. the St. Louis Housing Authority, which ended legal racial discrimination in public housing with the city. Constance Baker Motley was also an attorney for NAACP: it was a rarity to have two women attorneys leading such a high-profile case.

1955

January 7 – Marian Anderson (of 1939 fame) becomes the first African American to perform with the New York Metropolitan Opera.
January 15 – President Dwight D. Eisenhower signs Executive Order 10590, establishing the President's Committee on Government Policy to enforce a nondiscrimination policy in Federal employment.

Rosa Parks pictured in 1955

May 7 – NAACP and Regional Council of Negro Leadership activist Reverend George W. Lee is killed in Belzoni, Mississippi.
May 31 – The Supreme Court rules in "Brown II" that desegregation must occur with "all deliberate speed".
June 29 – The NAACP wins a Supreme Court decision, ordering the University of Alabama to admit Autherine Lucy.
August 13 – Regional Council of Negro Leadership registration activist Lamar Smith is murdered in Brookhaven, Mississippi.
August 28 – Teenager Emmett Till is killed for whistling at a white woman in Money, Mississippi.
November 7 – The Interstate Commerce Commission bans bus segregation in interstate travel in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company, extending the logic of Brown v. Board to the area of bus travel across state lines.
December 1 – Rosa Parks refuses to give up her seat on a bus, starting the Montgomery Bus Boycott. This occurs nine months after 15-year-old high school student Claudette Colvin became the first to refuse to give up her seat. Colvin's was the legal case which eventually ended the practice in Montgomery.
Roy Wilkins becomes the NAACP executive secretary.

1956

January 16 – FBI Director J. Edgar Hoover writes a rare open letter of complaint directed to civil rights leader Dr. T.R.M. Howard after Howard charged in a speech that the "FBI can pick up pieces of a fallen airplane on the slopes of a Colorado mountain and find the man who caused the crash, but they can't find a white man when he kills a Negro in the South." ^[20]
February 3 – Autherine Lucy is admitted to the University of Alabama. Whites riot, and she is suspended. Later, she is expelled for her part in further legal action against the university.
February 24 – The policy of Massive Resistance is declared by U.S. Senator Harry F. Byrd, Sr.
February/March- The Southern Manifesto, opposing integration of schools, is created and signed by members of the Congressional delegations of Southern states, including 19 senators and 81 members of the House of Representatives, notably the entire delegations of the states of Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, Louisiana, Mississippi, South Carolina and Virginia. On March 12, it is released to the press.
April 10 – Singer Nat King Cole is assaulted during a segregated performance at Municipal Auditorium in Birmingham, Alabama.
May 26 – Circuit Judge Walter B. Jones issues an injunction prohibiting the NAACP from operating in Alabama.
May 28 – The Tallahassee, Florida bus boycott begins.
June 5 – The Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) is founded at a mass meeting in Birmingham, Alabama.
November 5 – Nat King Cole hosts the first show of The Nat King Cole Show. The show went off the air after only 13 months because no national sponsor could be found.
November 13 – In Browder v. Gayle, the Supreme Court strikes down Alabama laws requiring segregation of buses. This ruling, together with the ICC's 1955 ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach banning Jim Crow in bus travel among the states, is a landmark in outlawing Jim Crow in bus travel.
December 25 – The parsonage in Birmingham, Alabama occupied by Fred Shuttlesworth, movement leader, is bombed. Shuttlesworth receives only minor scrapes.
December 26 – The ACMHR tests the Browder v. Gayle ruling by riding in the white sections of Birmingham city buses. 22 demonstrators are arrested.
Mississippi State Sovereignty Commission formed.
Director J. Edgar Hoover orders the FBI to begin the COINTELPRO program to investigate and disrupt "dissident" groups within the United States.

1957

January – Southern Christian Leadership Conference formed. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is named chairman of the organization.
May 17 – The Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom in Washington, DC is at the time the largest non-violent demonstration for civil rights.
September 4 – Orval Faubus, governor of Arkansas, calls out the National Guard to block integration of Little Rock Central High School.
September – President Dwight Eisenhower federalizes the National Guard and also orders US Army troops to ensure Little Rock Central High School in Arkansas is integrated. Federal and National Guard troops escort the Little Rock Nine.
September 27 – Civil Rights Act of 1957 signed by President Eisenhower.

1958

January 18 - Willie O'Ree breaks the color barrier in the National Hockey League, in his first game playing for the Boston Bruins.
June 29 – Bethel Baptist Church (Birmingham, Alabama) is bombed by Ku Klux Klan members.
June 30 – In NAACP v. Alabama, the Supreme Court rules that the NAACP was not required to release membership lists to continue operating in the state.
August – Clara Luper and the NAACP Youth Council conduct the largest successful sit-in to date, on drug store lunch-counters in Oklahoma City. This starts a successful six-year campaign by Luper and the Council to desegregate businesses and related institutions in Oklahoma City.
September 12 – In Cooper v. Aaron the Supreme Court rules that the states were bound by the Court's decisions.
Publication of Here I Stand, Paul Robeson's manifesto-autobiography.

1959

January 12 – Motown Records is founded by Berry Gordy.
April 24 – Mack Charles Parker is lynched three days before his trial.
A Raisin in the Sun, a play by Lorraine Hansberry, debuts on Broadway. The 1961 film of it will star Sidney Poitier.

[edit] 1960–1969

For more detail during this period, see Freedom Riders website chronology

1960

February 1 – Four black students sit at the Woolworth's lunch counter in Greensboro, North Carolina, sparking six months of the Greensboro Sit-Ins.
February 13 – The Nashville, Tennessee Sit-in begins, although the Nashville students, trained by activist and nonviolent teacher James Lawson, had been doing preliminary groundwork towards the action for two months. The sit-in ends successfully in May.
February 17 – Alabama grand jury indicts Martin Luther King (MLK) for tax evasion.
February 20 – Virginia Union University students stage sit-in at Woolworth's lunch counter in Richmond, Virginia.^[21]
March 3 – Vanderbilt University expels James Lawson for sit-in participation.
March 7 – Felton Turner of Houston is beaten and hanged upside-down in a tree, initials KKK carved on his chest.
March 19 – San Antonio becomes first city to integrate lunch counters.
March 20 – Florida Governor LeRoy Collins calls lunch counter segregation “unfair and morally wrong.”
April 8 – Weak civil rights bill survives Senate filibuster.
April 15–17 – The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) is formed in Raleigh, North Carolina.
April 19 – Z. Alexander Looby's home is bombed, with no injuries. Looby, a Nashville civil rights lawyer, was active in the cities ongoing sit-in movement.
May – Nashville sit-ins end successfully.
May 6 – Civil Rights Act of 1960 signed by President Dwight D. Eisenhower.
May 28 – William Robert Ming and Hubert Delaney obtain an acquittal of MLK from an all-white jury in Alabama.^[22]
June 24 – MLK meets Senator John F. Kennedy (JFK).
June 28 – Bayard Rustin resigns from SCLC after condemnation by Rep. Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.
July 11 – To Kill a Mockingbird published.
July 31 – Elijah Muhammad calls for an all-black state. Membership in Nation of Islam estimated at 100,000.
August – Rev. Wyatt Tee Walker replaces Ella Baker as SCLC’s Executive Director.
October 19 – MLK and fifty others arrested at sit-in at Atlanta’s Rich’s Department Store.
October 26 – MLK’s earlier probation revoked; he is transferred to Reidsville State Prison.
October 28 – After intervention from Robert F. Kennedy (RFK), King is free on bond.
November 8 – John F. Kennedy defeats Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election.
November 14 – Ruby Bridges becomes the first African-American child to attend an all-white elementary school in the South (William Frantz Elementary School) following court-ordered integration in New Orleans, Louisiana. This event was portrayed by Norman Rockwell in his 1964 painting The Problem We All Live With.
December 5 – In Boynton v. Virginia, the U.S. Supreme Court holds that racial segregation in bus terminals is illegal because such segregation violates the Interstate Commerce Act. This ruling, in combination with the ICC's 1955 decision in Keys v. Carolina Coach, effectively outlaws segregation on interstate buses and at the terminals servicing such buses.

1961

January 11 – Rioting over court-ordered admission of first two African Americans (Hamilton E. Holmes and Charlayne Hunter-Gault) at the University of Georgia leads to their suspension, but they are ordered reinstated.
January 31 – Member of the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) and nine students were arrested in Rock Hill, South Carolina for a sit-in at a McCrory's lunch counter.
March 6 – President John F. Kennedy issues Executive Order 10925, which establishes a Presidential committee that later becomes the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission.
May 4 – The first group of Freedom Riders, with the intent of integrating interstate buses, leaves Washington, D.C. by Greyhound bus. The group, organized by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE), leaves shortly after the U.S. Supreme Court has outlawed segregation in interstate transportation terminals.^[23]
May 14 – The Freedom Riders' bus is attacked and burned outside of Anniston, Alabama. A mob beats the Freedom Riders upon their arrival in Birmingham. The Freedom Riders are arrested in Jackson, Mississippi, and spend forty to sixty days in Parchman Penitentiary.^[23]
May 17 – Nashville students, coordinated by Diane Nash and James Bevel, take up the Freedom Ride, signaling the increased involvement of SNCC.
May 20 – Freedom Riders are assaulted in Montgomery, Alabama, at the Greyhound Bus Station.
May 21 – MLK, the Freedom Riders, and congregation of 1,500 at Rev. Ralph Abernathy’s First Baptist Church in Montgomery are besieged by mob of segregationists; Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy sends federal marshals to protect them.
May 29 – Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy, citing the 1955 landmark ICC ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company and the Supreme Court's 1960 decision in Boynton v. Virginia, petitions the ICC to enforce desegregation in interstate travel.
June–August – U.S. Dept. of Justice initiates talks with civil rights groups and foundations on beginning Voter Education Project.
July – SCLC begins citizenship classes; Andrew J. Young hired to direct the program. Bob Moses begins voter registration in McComb, Mississippi.
September – James Forman becomes SNCC’s Executive Secretary.
September 23 – Interstate Commerce Commission, at Robert F. Kennedy’s insistence, issues new rules ending discrimination in interstate travel, effective November 1, 1961, six years after the ICC's own ruling in Sarah Keys v. Carolina Coach Company.
September 25 – Voter registration activist Herbert Lee killed in McComb, Mississippi.
November 1 – All interstate buses required to display a certificate that reads: “Seating aboard this vehicle is without regard to race, color, creed, or national origin, by order of the Interstate Commerce Commission.”^[24]
November 1 – SNCC workers Charles Sherrod and Cordell Reagon and nine Chatmon Youth Council members test new ICC rules at Trailways bus station in Albany, Georgia.^[25]
November 17 – SNCC workers help encourage and coordinate black activism in Albany, Georgia, culminating in the founding of the Albany Movement as a formal coalition.^[25]
November 22 – Three high school students from Chatmon’s Youth Council arrested after using “positive actions” by walking into white sections of the Albany bus station.^[25]
November 22 – Albany State College students Bertha Gober and Blanton Hall arrested after entering the white waiting room of the Albany Trailways station.^[25]
December 10 – Freedom Riders from Atlanta, SNCC leader Charles Jones, and Albany State student Bertha Gober are arrested at Albany Union Railway Terminal, sparking mass demonstrations, with hundreds of protesters arrested over the next five days.^[26]
December 11–15 – Five hundred protesters arrested in Albany, Georgia.
December 15 – Dr. King arrives in Albany, Georgia in response to a call from Dr. W. G. Anderson, the leader of the Albany Movement to desegregate public facilities.^[23]
December 16 – Dr. King is arrested at an Albany, Georgia demonstration. He is charged with obstructing the sidewalk and parading without a permit.^[23]
December 18 – Albany truce, including a 60-day postponement of King's trial; MLK leaves town.^[27]
Whitney Young is appointed executive director of the National Urban League and begins expanding its size and mission.
Black Like Me written by John Howard Griffin, a white southerner who deliberately tanned and dyed his skin to allow him to directly experience the life of the Negro in the Deep South, is published, displaying the brutality of Jim Crow segregation to a national audience.

1962

January 18–20 – Student protests over sit-in leaders’ expulsions at Baton Rouge’s Southern University, the nation’s largest black school, close it down.
February – Representatives of SNCC, CORE, and the NAACP form the Council of Federated Organizations (COFO). A grant request to fund COFO voter registration activities is submitted to the Voter Education Project (VEP).
February 26 – Segregated transportation facilities, both interstate and intrastate, ruled unconstitutional by U.S. Supreme Court.
March – SNCC workers sit-in at US Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy's office to protest jailings in Baton Rouge.
March 20 – FBI installs wiretaps on NAACP activist Stanley Levison’s office.
April 3 – Defense Department orders full racial integration of military reserve units, except the National Guard.
April 9 – Corporal Roman Duckworth shot by a police officer in Taylorsville, Mississippi.
June – Leroy Willis becomes first black graduate of the University of Virginia College of Arts and Sciences.
June – SNCC workers establish voter registration projects in rural southwest Georgia.
July 10 – August 28 SCLC renews protests in Albany; MLK in jail July 10–12 and July 27 – August 10.
August 31 – Fannie Lou Hamer attempts to register to vote in Indianola, Mississippi.
September 9 – Two black churches used by SNCC for voter registration meetings are burned in Sasser, Georgia.
September 20 – James Meredith is barred from becoming the first black student to enroll at the University of Mississippi.
September 30 – October 1 – Supreme Court Justice Hugo Black orders James Meredith admitted to Ole Miss. Meredith enrolls; riot ensues. French photographer Paul Guihard and Oxford resident Ray Gunter are killed.
October – Leflore County, Mississippi, supervisors cut off surplus food distribution in retaliation against voter drive.
October 23 – FBI begins Communist Infiltration (COMINFIL) investigation of SCLC.
October 14–28 – Cuban Missile Crisis.
November 7–8 – Edward Brooke selected Massachusetts Attorney General, Leroy Johnson elected Georgia State Senator, Augustus F. Hawkins elected first black from California in Congress.
November 20 – Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy authorizes FBI wiretap on Stanley Levison’s home telephone.
November 20 – President John F. Kennedy upholds 1960 campaign promise to eliminate housing segregation by signing Executive Order 11063 banning segregation in Federally funded housing.

1963

January 18 – Incoming Alabama governor George Wallace calls for "segregation now, segregation tomorrow, segregation forever" in his inaugural address.
April 3 – May 10 – The Birmingham campaign, organized by the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) and the Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights challenges city leaders and business owners in Birmingham, Alabama, with daily mass demonstrations.
April – Mary Lucille Hamilton, Field Secretary for the Congress of Racial Equality, refuses to answer a judge in Gadsden, Alabama, until she is addressed by the honorific "Miss". It was the custom of the time to address white people by honorifics and people of color by their first names. Hamilton is jailed for contempt of court and refuses to pay bail. The case Hamilton v. Alabama is filed by the NAACP. It went to the Supreme Court, which ruled in 1964 that courts must address persons of color with the same courtesy extended to whites.
April 7 - Ministers John Thomas Porter, Nelson H. Smith and A. D. King lead a group of 2,000 marchers to protest the jailing of movement leaders in Birmingham.
April 12 - Martin Luther King, Jr. is arrested in Birmingham for "parading without a permit".
April 16 – King's Letter from Birmingham Jail is completed.
April 23 – CORE activist William L. Moore is killed in Gadsden, Alabama.
May 2–4 – Birmingham's juvenile court is inundated with African-American children and teenagers arrested after James Bevel launches his "D-Day" youth march, which spans three days to become the Children's Crusade.^[28]
May 9–10 – After images of fire hoses and police dogs turned on protesters are shown on television, the Children's Crusade lays the groundwork for the terms of a negotiated truce on Thursday, May 9 – an end to mass demonstrations in return for rolling back oppressive segregation laws and practices. MLK and Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth announce the terms of the settlement on Friday, May 10, only after MLK holds out to orchestrate the release of thousands of jailed demonstrators with bail money from Harry Belafonte and Attorney General Robert F. Kennedy.^[29]
May 13 – In United States of America and Interstate Commerce Commission v. the City of Jackson, Mississippi et al., the United States Court of Appeals Fifth Circuit rules the city's attempt to circumvent laws desegregating interstate transportation facilities by posting sidewalk signs outside Greyhound, Trailways and Illinois Central terminals reading "Waiting Room for White Only — By Order Police Department" and "Waiting Room for Colored Only — By Order Police Department" to be unlawful.^[30]
June 9 – Fannie Lou Hamer is among several SNCC workers badly beaten by police in the Winona, Mississippi, jail after their bus stops there.
June 11 – "The Stand in the Schoolhouse Door": Alabama Governor George Wallace stands in front of a schoolhouse door at the University of Alabama in an attempt to stop desegregation by the enrollment of two black students, Vivian Malone and James Hood. Wallace only stands aside after being confronted by federal marshals, Deputy Attorney General Nicholas Katzenbach, and the Alabama National Guard. Later in life he apologizes for his opposition to racial integration then.
June 11 – President John F. Kennedy makes his historic civil rights speech, promising a bill to Congress the next week. About civil rights for "Negroes", in his speech he asks for "the kind of equality of treatment which we would want for ourselves."
June 12 – NAACP worker Medgar Evers is murdered in Jackson, Mississippi. (His killer is convicted in 1994.)^[31]
Summer – 80,000 blacks quickly register to vote in Mississippi by a test project to show their desire to participate.
June 19 – President Kennedy sends Congress (H. Doc. 124, 88th Cong., 1st session.) his proposed Civil Rights Act.^[32]
August 28 – March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom is held. Dr. Martin Luther King gives his I Have a Dream speech.^[33]
September 10 – Birmingham, Alabama City Schools are integrated by National Guardsmen under orders from JFK.
September 15 – 16th Street Baptist Church bombing in Birmingham kills four young girls. That same day, in response to the killings, James Bevel and Diane Nash begin the Alabama Project, which will later grow into the Selma Voting Rights Movement.
November 22 – President Kennedy is assassinated. The new President, Lyndon B. Johnson, decides that accomplishing JFK's legislative agenda is his best strategy, which he pursues with the results below in 1964–1965.^[34]

1964

All year – The Alabama Voting Rights Project continues organizing as James Bevel, Diane Nash, and James Orange work without the support of SCLC, the group which Bevel represents as its Director of Direct Action and Director of Nonviolent Education.
January 23 – Twenty-fourth Amendment abolishes the poll tax for Federal elections.
Summer – Mississippi Freedom Summer – voter registration in the state. Create the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party to elect an alternative slate of delegates for the national convention, as blacks are still officially disfranchised.
April 13 - Sidney Poitier wins the Academy Award for Best Actor for role in Lilies of the Field.
June 21 – Mississippi Civil Rights Workers Murders, three civil rights workers disappear, later to be found murdered.
June 28 – Organization of Afro-American Unity is founded by Malcolm X, lasts until his death.
July 2 – Civil Rights Act of 1964^[35] signed.^[34]
August – Congress passes the Economic Opportunity Act which, among other things, provides federal funds for legal representation of Native Americans in both civil and criminal suits. This allows the ACLU and the American Bar Association to represent Native Americans in cases that later win them additional civil rights.
August – The Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party delegates challenge the seating of all-white Mississippi representatives at the Democratic national convention.
December 10 – Dr. Martin Luther King is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, the youngest person so honored.^[36]
December 14 – In Heart of Atlanta Motel v. United States, the Supreme Court upholds the Civil Rights Act of 1964.^[35]

1965

February 18 – A peaceful protest march in Selma leads to Jimmie Lee Jackson being shot to death by Alabama state trooper James Bonard Fowler, who in 2007 is indicted for his murder.
February 21 – Malcolm X is shot to death in Manhattan, New York, probably by three members of the Nation of Islam.
March 7 – Bloody Sunday: Civil rights workers in Selma, Alabama, begin a march to Montgomery but are stopped by a massive police blockade as they cross the Edmund Pettus Bridge. Many marchers are severely injured and one killed. This action, initiated and organized by James Bevel, becomes the visual symbol of the Selma Voting Rights Movement.
March 15 – President Lyndon Johnson uses the phrase "We shall overcome" in a speech before Congress on the voting rights bill.^[37]
March 25 – White volunteer Viola Liuzzo is shot and killed by Ku Klux Klan members in Mississippi – one of whom was an FBI informant.
June 2 – Black deputy sheriff Oneal Moore is murdered in Varnado, Louisiana.
July 2 – Equal Employment Opportunity Commission opens.
August 6 – Voting Rights Act of 1965 signed by President Johnson.^[37]^[37]
August 11 – Watts Riots erupt in south Los Angeles.
September – Raylawni Branch and Gwendolyn Elaine Armstrong become the first African-American students to attend the University of Southern Mississippi.
September 15 – Bill Cosby co-stars in I Spy, becoming the first black person to appear in a starring role on American television.
September 24 – President Johnson signs Executive Order 11246 requiring Equal Employment Opportunity by federal contractors.

1966

January 10 – NAACP local chapter president Vernon Dahmer is injured by a bomb in Hattiesburg, Mississippi. He dies the next day.
June 5 – James Meredith begins a solitary March Against Fear from Memphis, Tennessee to Jackson, Mississippi. Shortly after starting, he is shot with birdshot and injured. Civil rights leaders and organizations rally and continue the march leading to, on June 16, Stokely Carmichael first using the slogan Black power in a speech.
September – Nichelle Nichols is cast as a female black officer on television's Star Trek. She briefly considers leaving the role, but is encouraged by Dr. Martin Luther King to continue as an example for their community.
October – Black Panthers founded by Huey P. Newton and Bobby Seale in Oakland, California.
November – Edward Brooke is elected to the U.S. Senate from Massachusetts. He is the first black senator since 1881.

1967

January 9 – Julian Bond is seated in the Georgia House of Representatives by order of the Supreme Court after his election.
June 12 – In Loving v. Virginia, the Supreme Court rules that prohibiting interracial marriage is unconstitutional.
June 13 – Thurgood Marshall is the first African American appointed to the U.S. Supreme Court.
August 2 – The film In the Heat of the Night is released, starring Sidney Poitier.
December 11 – The film Guess Who's Coming to Dinner is released, also with Sidney Poitier.
In the trial of accused killers in the Mississippi civil rights worker murders, the jury convicts 7 of 18 accused men. Conspirator Edgar Ray Killen is later convicted in 2005.
The film The Great White Hope starring James Earl Jones is released; it is based on the experience of heavyweight Jack Johnson.
The book Death at an Early Age: The Destruction of the Hearts and Minds of Negro Children in the Boston Public Schools is published.

1968

February 8 – The Orangeburg Massacre occurs during university protest in South Carolina.
March – While filming a prime time television special, Petula Clark touches Harry Belafonte's arm during a duet. Chrysler Corporation, the show's sponsor, insists the moment be deleted, but Clark stands firm, destroys all other takes of the song, and delivers the completed program to NBC with the touch intact. The show is broadcast on April 8, 1968.^[38]
April 4 – Dr. Martin Luther King is shot and killed in Memphis, Tennessee by James Earl Ray.
April 11 – Civil Rights Act of 1968 is signed. The Fair Housing Act is Title VIII of this Civil Rights Act – it bans discrimination in the sale, rental, and financing of housing. The law is passed following a series of contentious open housing campaigns throughout the urban North. The most significant of these campaigns took place in Chicago (1966) and in Milwaukee (1967–68). In both cities, angry white mobs attacked non-violent protesters.^[39]^[40]
May 12- Poor People's Campaign marches on Washington, DC.
June 6 – Robert F. Kennedy, a Civil Rights advocate, is assassinated after winning the California presidential primary. His appeal to minorities helped him secure the victory.
September 17 – Diahann Carroll stars in the title role in Julia, as the first African American actress to star in her own television series where she did not play a domestic worker.
October 3 – The play The Great White Hope opens; it runs for 546 performances and later becomes a film.
October – Tommie Smith and John Carlos raise their fists to symbolize black power and unity after winning the gold and bronze medals, respectively, at the 1968 Summer Olympic Games.
November 22 – First interracial kiss on American television, between Nichelle Nichols and William Shatner on Star Trek.
In Powe v. Miles, a federal court holds that the portions of private colleges that are funded by public money are subject to the Civil Rights Act.
Shirley Chisholm becomes the first African-American woman elected to Congress.

1969

June – The second of two US federal appeals court decisions not only confirms members of the public hold legal standing to participate in broadcast station license hearings, but under the Fairness Doctrine finds the record of segregationist TV station WLBT beyond repair. The FCC is ordered to open proceedings for a new licensee.^[41]
December – Fred Hampton, chairman of the Illinois chapter of the Black Panther Party, is shot and killed while asleep in bed during a police raid on his home.
United Citizens Party is formed in South Carolina when Democratic Party refuses to nominate African-American candidates.
W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African-American Research founded at Harvard University.
The Revised Philadelphia Plan is instituted by the Department of Labor.
The Congressional Black Caucus is formed.

[edit] 1970–2000

1970

January 19 – G. Harrold Carswell's nomination to the Supreme Court rejected.
May 27 – The film Watermelon Man is released, directed by Melvin Van Peebles and starring Godfrey Cambridge. The film is a comedy about a bigoted white man who wakes up one morning to discover that his skin pigment has changed to black.
First blaxploitation films released.

1971

April 20 – The Supreme Court, in Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education, upholds desegregation busing of students to achieve integration.
June – Control of segregationist TV station WLBT given to a bi-racial foundation.
December – Jesse Jackson organizes Operation PUSH.
Ernest J. Gaines's Reconstruction-era novel The Autobiography of Miss Jane Pittman published.

1972

January 25 – Shirley Chisholm becomes the first major-party African-American candidate for President of the United States and the first woman to run for the Democratic presidential nomination.
November 16 – In Baton Rouge, two Southern University students are killed by white sheriff deputies during a school protest over lack of funding from the state. Today, the university’s Smith-Brown Memorial Union is named in their honor.
Unknown - The infamous Tuskegee syphilis experiment ends. Begun in 1932, the U.S. Public Health Service's 40-year experiment on 399 black men in the late stages of syphilis has been described as an experiment that "used human beings as laboratory animals in a long and inefficient study of how long it takes syphilis to kill someone."

1973

February 27 – Start of 71-day standoff at Wounded Knee between federal authorities and members of the American Indian Movement.
Combahee River Collective, a Black feminist group, is established in Boston, out of New York's National Black Feminist Organization.

1974

July 25 – In Milliken v. Bradley, the Supreme Court in a 5–4 decision holds that outlying districts could only be forced into a desegregation busing plan if there was a pattern of violation on their part. This decision reinforces the trend of white flight.
Salsa Soul Sisters, Third World Wimmin Inc Collective, the first "out" organization for lesbians, womanists and women of color formed in New York City.

1975

April 30 – In the pilot episode of Starsky and Hutch, Richard Ward plays an African-American boss of white Americans for the first time on TV.

1976

February – Black History Month is founded by Professor Carter Woodson's Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History.
The novel Roots: The Saga of an American Family by Alex Haley is published.

1977

Combahee River Collective, a Black feminist group, publishes the Combahee River Collective Statement.
President Jimmy Carter appoints Andrew Young to serve as Ambassador to the United Nations, the first African-American to serve in the position.

1978

June 28 – Regents of the University of California v. Bakke bars racial quota systems in college admissions but affirms the constitutionality of affirmative action programs giving equal access to minorities.

1979

United Steelworkers of America v. Weber is a case regarding affirmative action in which the United States Supreme Court holds that the Civil Rights Act of 1964 did not bar employers from favoring women and minorities.

1982

Charles Fuller writes A Soldier's Play, which is later made into the film A Soldier's Story.
November 30 – Michael Jackson releases Thriller, which becomes the best-selling album of all time.

1983

May 24 – The U.S. Supreme Court rules that Bob Jones University did not qualify as either a tax-exempt or a charitable organization due to its racially discriminatory practices.^[42]
August 30 – Guion Bluford becomes the first African-American to go into space.
November 2 - President Ronald Reagan signs a bill creating a federal holiday to honor Dr. Martin Luther King.

Alice Walker receives the Pulitzer Prize for her novel The Color Purple.

1984

September 13 – The film A Soldier's Story is released, dealing with racism in the U.S. military.
The Cosby Show begins, and is regarded as one of the defining television shows of the decade.

1986

January 20 – Established by legislation in 1983, Martin Luther King, Jr. Day is first celebrated as a national holiday.

1987

The Public Broadcasting Service's six-part documentary Eyes on the Prize is first shown, covering the years 1954–1965. In 1990 it is added to by the eight-part Eyes on the Prize II covering the years 1965–1985.

1988

Civil Rights Restoration Act of 1988.
December 9 – The film Mississippi Burning is released, regarding the 1964 Mississippi civil rights workers murders.

1989

February 10 – Ron Brown is elected chairman of the Democratic National Committee, becoming the first African American to lead a major United States political party.
October 1 – Colin Powell becomes Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
December 15 – The film Glory is released: it features African-American Civil War soldiers.

1990

January 13 – Douglas Wilder becomes the first elected African American governor as he takes office in Richmond, Virginia.

1991

March 3 – Four white police officers are videotaped beating African-American Rodney King in Los Angeles.
October 15 – Senate confirms the nomination of Clarence Thomas to the Supreme Court.
November 21 – Civil Rights Act of 1991 enacted.
Henry Louis Gates, Jr. becomes Harvard University's Director of the W. E. B. Du Bois Institute for African and African American Research.

1992

April 29 – 1992 Los Angeles riots erupt after officers accused of beating Rodney King are acquitted.
September 12 – Mae Carol Jemison becomes the first African American woman to travel in space when she goes into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle Endeavour.
November 3 – Carol Moseley Braun becomes the first African American woman to be elected to the United States Senate.
November 18 – Director Spike Lee's film Malcolm X is released. [2]

1994

March 29 – Cornel West's text Race Matters is published.

1995

June 30 – In Miller v. Johnson the Supreme Court rules that gerrymandering based on race is unconstitutional.
October 16 – Million Man March in Washington, D.C., co-initiated by Louis Farrakhan and James Bevel.

1997

July 9 – Director Spike Lee releases his documentary 4 Little Girls, about the 1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing.
October 25 – Million Woman March in Philadelphia.

1998

June 7 – James Byrd, Jr. is brutally murdered by white supremacists in Jasper, Texas. The scene is reminiscent of earlier lynchings. In response, Byrd's family create the James Byrd Foundation for Racial Healing.
October 23 – The film American History X is released, powerfully highlighting the problems of urban racism.

2000

May 3 – Bob Jones University, a fundamentalist South Carolina private institution, ends its ban on interracial dating.^[43]

[edit] 21st century

2001

January 20 – Colin Powell becomes Secretary of State.

2003

June 23 – Supreme Court in Grutter v. Bollinger upholds the University of Michigan Law School's admission policy. However, in the simultaneously-heard Gratz v. Bollinger the university is required to change a policy.

2005

June 21 – Edgar Ray Killen is convicted of participating in the Mississippi civil rights worker murders.
October 15 – The Millions More Movement holds a march in Washington D.C.
October 25 – Rosa Parks dies at the age of 92. She was famous for starting the Montgomery Bus Boycott in 1955. Her body lies in state in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C. before her funeral.

2007

May 10 – Alabama state trooper James Bonard Fowler is indicted for the murder of Jimmie Lee Jackson on February 18, 1965.
June 28 – Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 decided along with Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education prohibits assigning students to public schools solely for the purpose of achieving racial integration and declines to recognize racial balancing as a compelling state interest.

2008

June 3 – Barack Obama receives enough delegates by the end of state primaries to be the presumptive Democratic Party of the United States nominee.^[44]
August 28 – At the 2008 Democratic National Convention, in a stadium filled with supporters, Barack Obama accepts the Democratic nomination for President of the United States.
November 4 – Barack Obama elected 44th President of the United States of America, opening his victory speech with, "If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer."^{[citation
needed]}

2009

January 20 – Barack Obama sworn in as the 44th President of the United States, the first African-American ever to become president.
January 30 – Former Maryland Lt. Governor Michael Steele becomes the first African-American Chairman of the Republican National Committee.
The U.S. Postal Service issues a commemorative six-stamp set portraying twelve civil rights pioneers.
October 9 – Barack Obama is awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.

2010

July 19 – Shirley Sherrod first is pressured to resign from the U.S. Department of Agriculture and immediately thereafter receives its apology after she is inaccurately accused of being racist towards white Americans.

2011 January 14 - Michael Steele, the first African-American Chairman of the RNC lost his bid for re-election; Reince Priebus was the winner of the election.

[edit] See also

African American portal

[edit] Other books

African American literature section on Civil Rights Movement Literature
Harlem Renaissance
Carry Me Home: Birmingham, Alabama, the Climactic Battle of the Civil Rights Revolution
Covering: The Hidden Assault on Our Civil Rights
The Fire Next Time, 1963, by James Baldwin
Nigger, 1964, by Dick Gregory
The Nigger Bible, 1967, by Robert H. deCoy, foreword by Dick Gregory
The Slave Community: Plantation Life in the Antebellum South (1972)
Soul on Ice, 1968, by Eldridge Cleaver
White Guilt: How Blacks and Whites Together Destroyed the Promise of the Civil Rights Era

[edit] Government

[edit] Other people

[edit] Authors and artists

Maya Angelou, author
Gwendolyn Brooks, poet
Alice Childress, playwright and author
Paul Laurence Dunbar, poet
Frances Harper, poet
Harriet Ann Jacobs, author
Jacob Lawrence, painter
Walter Mosley, author
Suzan-Lori Parks, playwright
Henry Ossawa Tanner, painter
Lucy Terry first known African American author.
James Van Der Zee, photographer
Phillis Wheatley, first published African American
August Wilson, playwright

[edit] Athletes

[edit] Performers

Alvin Ailey
Louis Armstrong, musician
Josephine Baker
Count Basie
Angela Bassett
Chuck Berry, essentially invented rock and roll
Halle Berry
Buddy Bolden, musician who contributed to jazz
Godfrey Cambridge
Ray Charles
John Coltrane
Miles Davis
Ossie Davis
Sammy Davis, Jr.
Fats Domino
Duke Ellington
Laurence Fishburne
Ella Fitzgerald
George Foreman
Redd Foxx
Aretha Franklin
Morgan Freeman
Danny Glover
Dick Gregory
Jimi Hendrix
Mahalia Jackson, singer
Robert Johnson (musician), blues singer and guitarist
B. B. King
Eartha Kitt
Gladys Knight & the Pips
Little Richard
Cleavon Little
Don Mitchell of Ironside (TV series)
Jelly Roll Morton, pianist and composer, says invented jazz in 1902
Eddie Murphy, screenwrite, comedian, actor
Leontyne Price, opera diva
Diana Ross and The Supremes
Nipsey Russell
Bessie Smith
Cicely Tyson
Denzel Washington
Muddy Waters
Clarence Williams III of The Mod Squad
Demond Wilson
Oprah Winfrey
Stevie Wonder

[edit] Activists and organizers

Reverend Ralph Abernathy, 1950s-1960s activist and organizer
Benjamin Banneker, author and surveyor
Marion Barry, mayor
Daisy Bates, activist
James Bevel, 1960s activist and organizer
Tom Bradley, mayor
H. Rap Brown, Black Panther
Shirley Chisholm, politician
Bull Connor, infamous police official in Birmingham, Alabama during the 1950s and 1960s
Curtis Cooper, president of the NAACP's Savannah Branch
Angela Davis, activist
David Dinkins, politician
Bernice Fisher, union organizer
James Forman, activist
A. G. Gaston, businessperson
Wilton Daniel Gregory, Roman Catholic bishop and prelate
Richard G. Hatcher, mayor
Benjamin Hooks, civil rights leader
Reverend Jesse Jackson, politician and activist, candidate for President
Maynard Jackson, mayor
Martin Luther King, Jr., 1950s-1960s activist and organizer
Bernard Lafayette, 1960s activist and organizer
Reverend James Lawson, advocate of non-violent protest
Floyd McKissick, 1960s activist
Amzie Moore, civil rights leader
Robert Parris Moses, educator
Reverend Otis Moss III, minister to inner-city youth
Diane Nash, 1960s activist and organizer
James Orange, 1960s activist and organizer
P. B. S. Pinchback, military officer and politician
Condoleezza Rice, secretary of state
Bayard Rustin, 1960s activist
Cleveland Sellers, 1960s activist
Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, minister and 1960s activist
Robert Smalls, escaped slave and politician
Charles Kenzie Steele, co-founder of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference
Charles Kenzie Steele, Jr.
Carl Stokes, mayor
Harold Washington, politician
Walter Francis White, essayist and long-time executive secretary of the NAACP
Roy Wilkins, NAACP organizer
Robert F. Williams, NAACP organizer

[edit] Footnotes

^ http://international.loc.gov/ammem/awhhtml/awlaw3/slavery.html
^ http://www.pbs.org/wnet/slavery/experience/responses/spotlight.html
^ "The American Revolution and Slavery", Digital History accessed 5 March 2008
^ Peter Kolchin, American Slavery: 1619–1877, New York: Hill and Wang, pp.78 and 81
^ PBS documentary
^ The Life of Josiah Henson, Formerly a Slave, Now an Inhabitant of Canada, as Narrated by Himself: Electronic Edition. [1] page58
^ Wormley, G. Smith."Prudence Crandall", The Journal of Negro History Vol. 8, No. 1, Jan. 1923.
^ "Connecticut's "Black Law" (1833)". Citizens All (project). Yale University. http://www.yale.edu/glc/citizens/stories/module4/documents/black_law.html. Retrieved 2012-03-19. "Lacking no legal means to prevent Prudence Crandall from opening her school, Andrew Judson, a local politician, pushed legislation through the Connecticut Assembly outlawing the establishment of schools 'for the instruction of colored persons belonging to other states and countries.'"
^ "Morehouse Legacy". www.morehouse.edu. Morehouse College. http://www.morehouse.edu/about/legacy.html. Retrieved 16 March 2012.
^ John C. Willis, Forgotten Time: The Yazoo-Mississippi Delta after the Civil War, Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 2000
^ James D.Anderson, Black Education in the South, 1860–1935, Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1988, pp.244–245
^ Frum, David (2000). How We Got Here: The '70s. New York, New York: Basic Books. p. 41. ISBN 0-465-04195-7.
^ Wolgemuth, Kathleen L. (April 1959). "Woodrow Wilson and Federal Segregation". The Journal of Negro History (Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.) 44 (2): 158–173. DOI:10.2307/2716036. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716036?seq=1.
^ Blumenthal, Henry (January 1963). "Woodrow Wilson and the Race Question". The Journal of Negro History (Association for the Study of African-American Life and History, Inc.) 48 (1): 1–21. DOI:10.2307/2716642. http://www.jstor.org/stable/2716642?seq=1.
^ Angela Y. Davis,Women, Race & Class. New York: Vintage Books, 1983, pp.194–195
^ "America's First Sit-Down Strike: The 1939 Alexandria Library Sit-In". City of Alexandria. http://oha.alexandriava.gov/bhrc/lessons/bh-lesson2_reading2.html. Retrieved 2009-08-20.
^ "DIVINE'S FOLLOWERS GIVE AID TO STRIKERS; With Evangelist's Sanction They 'Sit Down' in Restaurant". New York Times (US). 1939-09-23. http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FA0A17FA3B54107A93C1AB1782D85F4D8385F9. Retrieved 2010-07-20. "[The workers] are seeking wage increases, shorter hours, a closed shop and cessation of what they charge has been racial discrimination."
^ Smith v. Allwright, 321 U.S. 649 (1944)
^ Morgan v. Virginia, 1946
^ David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito, Black Maverick: T.R.M. Howard's Fight for Civil Rights and Economic Power, Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009, pp.154-55.
^ The Virginia Center for Digital History
^ Clayborne Carson (1998). The autobiography of Martin Luther King, Jr. Grand Central Publishing. p. 141. ISBN 978-0-446-52412-4. http://books.google.com/?id=GvuO5Yr1W_sC&pg=PA141&q.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d The King Center, The Chronology of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.. "1961". Archived from the original on October 13, 2007. http://web.archive.org/web/20071013062550/http://www.thekingcenter.org/mlk/chronology.html. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
^ Arsenault, Raymond (2006). Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice. Oxford Univ. Press. p. 439. ISBN 0-19-513674-8.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Branch, Taylor (1988). Parting the Waters: America in the King Years. Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. pp. 527–530. ISBN 978-0-671-68742-7.
^ Branch, pp.533–535
^ Branch, pp. 555–556
^ Branch, pp. 756–765
^ Branch, pp. 786–791
^ UNITED STATES of America and Interstate Commerce Commission v. The CITY OF JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI, Allen Thompson, Douglas L. Lucky and Thomas B. Marshall, Commissioners of the City of Jackson, and W.D. Rayfield, Chief of Police of the City of Jackson, United States Court of Appeals Fifth Circuit, May 13, 1963.
^ Medgar Evers.
^ Proposed Civil Rights Act.
^ March on Washington.
^ ^a ^b Loevy, Robert. "A Brief History of the Civil Rights Act of 1964". http://faculty1.coloradocollege.edu/~bloevy/CivilRightsActOf1964. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
^ ^a ^b Civil Rights Act of 1964
^ Nobel Peace Prize acceptance speech.
^ ^a ^b ^c Gavin, Philip. "The History Place^TM, Great Speeches Collection, Lyndon B. Johnson, "We Shall Overcome"". http://www.historyplace.com/speeches/johnson.htm. Retrieved 2007-12-31.
^ When Harry Met Petula
^ James Ralph, Northern Protest: Martin Luther King, Jr., Chicago, and the Civil Rights Movement (1993) Harvard University Press ISBN 0-674-62687-7
^ Patrick D. Jones (2009). The Selma of the North: Civil Rights Insurgency in Milwaukee. Harvard University Press. pp. 1–6, 169ff. ISBN 978-0-674-03135-7. http://books.google.com/books?id=Wk2NylFxF4sC&pg=PA1.
^ http://www.archives.gov/publications/prologue/2004/fall/channels-2.html
^ Bob Jones University v. United States, 461 U.S. 574 (1983)
^ CNN: Bob Jones University ends ban on interracial dating
^ CNN: Obama: I will be the Democratic nominee

[edit] External links

Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History (international view)
Tullos, Allen. "Selma Bridge: Always Under Construction," Southern Spaces July 28, 2008.
Detailed year-by-year timeline 1951–1968^{[dead
link]}
University of Southern Mississippi's Civil Rights Documentation Project, includes an extensive Timeline
Freedom Riders website chronology, extremely detailed
Civil Rights Timeline, sections on Martin Luther King, Jr.
41 Lives for Freedom
Black baseball firsts
African-American Pioneers of Texas
Memphis Civil Rights Digital Archive
Civil Rights: Pivotal Events – slideshow by Life magazine

[hide] v t e African-American Civil Rights Movement

Topics and events (timeline)	1963 16th Street Baptist Church bombing Albany Movement Birmingham campaign Browder v. Gayle Brown v. Board of Education Brown Chapel A.M.E. Church Chicago Open Housing Movement Civil Rights Act of 1964 Civil Rights Act of 1968 Dexter Avenue Baptist Church Emmett Till Freedom Riders Mississippi Freedom Summer Garner v. Louisiana Greensboro sit-ins Greyhound Bus Station (Montgomery, Alabama) Harper v. Virginia Board of Elections Little Rock Nine Loving v. Virginia March on Washington Mississippi civil rights workers murders Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party Montgomery Bus Boycott Nashville sit-ins Poor People's Campaign Selma Voting Rights Movement Twenty-fourth Amendment Voting Rights Act of 1965

Activists	Ralph Abernathy Victoria Gray Adams Ella Baker James Bevel Claude Black Unita Blackwell Julian Bond Joseph E. Boone William Holmes Borders Stokely Carmichael J.L. Chestnut Shirley Chisholm Septima Clark Dorothy Cotton Claudette Colvin Vernon Dahmer Annie Devine Patricia Stephens Due Medgar Evers Chuck Fager James Farmer James Forman Marie Foster Dick Gregory Prathia Hall Fannie Lou Hamer Dorothy Height Lola Hendricks Aaron Henry Myles Horton T. R. M. Howard Jesse Jackson Jimmie Lee Jackson T. J. Jemison Vernon Johns Frank Johnson Matthew Jones Clyde Kennard A. D. King Coretta Scott King Martin Luther King, Jr. Bernard Lafayette James Lawson Bernard Lee John Lewis Viola Liuzzo Z. Alexander Looby Joseph Lowery Clara Luper Malcolm X Thurgood Marshall Ralph McGill James Meredith Amzie Moore Irene Morgan Bob Moses Bill Moyer Diane Nash E. D. Nixon James Orange James Peck Rosa Parks Adam Clayton Powell, Jr. Al Raby A. Philip Randolph Cordell Reagon Amelia Boynton Robinson Jo Ann Robinson Bayard Rustin Charles Sherrod Fred Shuttlesworth Modjeska Monteith Simkins Kelly Miller Smith Charles Kenzie Steele C. T. Vivian Wyatt Tee Walker Roy Wilkins Hosea Williams John Minor Wisdom Andrew Young Whitney Young

Activist groups	Alabama Christian Movement for Human Rights (ACMHR) Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) Highlander Folk School Leadership Conference on Civil Rights Montgomery Improvement Association National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) NAACP Youth Council Northern Student Movement National Council of Negro Women National Urban League Operation Breadbasket Regional Council of Negro Leadership Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC) Women's Political Council

Historians	Taylor Branch Clayborne Carson Michael Eric Dyson Chuck Fager Adam Fairclough David Garrow David Halberstam Diane McWhorter

Scandinavia

[edit] References

Early life

[edit] Events of the case

[edit] Trial

[edit] Aftermath

[edit] Legacy in popular culture

[edit] See also

Grand Dragon of the Ku Klux Klan

[edit] Convicted of murder

[edit] Cultural reference

[edit] References

[edit] Further reading

[edit] External links

[edit] References

Pre-17th century

[edit] 17th century

[edit] 18th century

[edit] 19th century

[edit] 1800–1859

Lincoln edit] 1860–1874

[edit] 1875–1899

[edit] 20th century

[edit] 1900–1924

[edit] 1925–1949

[edit] 1950–1959

[edit] 1960–1969

[edit] 1970–2000

[edit] 21st century

[edit] See also

[edit] Other books

[edit] Government

[edit] Other people

[edit] Authors and artists

[edit] Athletes

[edit] Performers

[edit] Activists and organizers

[edit] Footnotes

[edit] External links