Dee Finney's blog February 24. 2012 page 148 THE CONTROL OF MONEY

Dee Finney's blog

start date July 20,, 2011

Today's date February 24, 2012

page 148

TOPIC: THE CONTROL OF MONEY

2-24-12 - DREAM - I was in a room with my son, and he got in the mail what looked like a small easy bake oven in which we were supposed to bake a cake. The recipe cards looked like church book markers AND EACH ONE HAD A PICTURE OF A WOMAN ON THE FRONT WITH A FLEUR DE LIS ON THE BACK, it contained miniature coins which I took out of the kit because kids shouldn't have such small objects. A plastic rod to stir the cake batter broke off, and we complained so they sent us another one immediately, which also contained the miniature coins, but with the plastic rod attached plus the religious book mark cards.

I was looking through the cards to see if there as a recipe for the cake, when this really handsome guy who looked like JAX from General Hospital TV show. He took one of the cards and started singing in Latin, and the last word was habenae (which means government, reins) and he said I twas Scottish. He had a very lovely high pitched voice.

I wondered why he was hanging around - thinking he was gay?

NOTE: I looked up miniature coins and came up with Scottish coins for Robert Bruce I, whose wife's name was Isabel of Mar from the early 1700's.

Wonder if that was reminder of a past life thing.

*****

note: AS IT TURNED OUT, AS SOON AS I WAS ON LINE, I GOT THIS E-MAIL INCLUDING THE LINK TO THE MONEY MASTER VIDEO.

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JXt1cayx0hs

I ALWAYS HAVE TO ASK, HOW DO I DREAM LIKE THAT? COINCIDENCE? I DON'T THINK SO - AT LEAST MY SPIRIT GUIDES KNEW I WAS GOING TO GET OR HAD ALREADY RECEIVED THE LINK TO THAT VIDEO.

HERE ARE THE SYMBOLS IN THE DREAM AND IN THE VIDEO

STICK\ (USED INSTEAD OF GOLD FOR MONEY) A tally (or tally stick) was an ancient memory aid device to record and document numbers, quantities, or even messages. Tally sticks first appear as notches carved on animal bones, in the Upper Paleolithic. A notable example is the Ishango Bone. Historical reference is made by Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) about the best wood to use for tallies and Marco Polo (1254–1324) who mentions the use of the tally in China.

tTALLY STICKS

Split tally in England

The most prominent and best recorded use of the split tally stick being used as a form of currency was when King Henry I initiated the tally stick system in or around 1100 in medieval England. He would only accept the tally stick for taxes, and it was a tool of the Exchequer for the collection of taxes by local sheriffs (tax farmers "farming the shire") for roughly 726 years. The split tally of the Exchequer was in continuous use until 1826. In 1834, the tallies themselves were ordered to be burned in a stove in the Houses of Parliament, but the fire went out of control setting the building afire.

The system of tally marks of the Exchequer is described in The Dialogue Concerning the Exchequer (see external links below) as follows:

The manner of cutting is as follows. At the top of the tally a cut is made, the thickness of the palm of the hand, to represent a thousand pounds; then a hundred pounds by a cut the breadth of a thumb; twenty pounds, the breadth of the little finger; a single pound, the width of a swollen barleycorn; a shilling rather narrower than a penny is marked by a single cut without removing any wood.

Royal tallies (debt of the Crown) also played an infamous role in the formation of the Bank of England at the end of the 17th century when these royal tallies, trading at a hefty discount of up to 60 percent, were engrafted into the Bank's capital stock.^{[citation
needed]}

Tally sticks feature in the design of the entrance gates to The National Archives at Kew.

COINS

RELIGION AND MONEY

Vatican Bank mired in laundering scandal
The allegations led police to seize $30 million in Vatican assets in September

This is no ordinary bank: The ATMs are in Latin. Priests use a private entrance. A life-size portrait of Pope Benedict XVI hangs on the wall.

Nevertheless, the Institute for Religious Works is a bank, and it's under harsh new scrutiny in a case involving money-laundering allegations that led police to seize €23 million ($30 million) in Vatican assets in September. Critics say the case shows that the "Vatican Bank" has never shed its penchant for secrecy and scandal.

The Vatican calls the seizure of assets a "misunderstanding" and expresses optimism it will be quickly cleared up. But court documents show that prosecutors say the Vatican Bank deliberately flouted anti-laundering laws "with the aim of hiding the ownership, destination and origin of the capital." The documents also reveal investigators' suspicions that clergy may have acted as fronts for corrupt businessmen and Mafia.

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The documents pinpoint two transactions that have not been reported: one in 2009 involving the use of a false name, and another in 2010 in which the Vatican Bank withdrew €650,000 ($860,000) from an Italian bank account but ignored bank requests to disclose where the money was headed.

The new allegations of financial impropriety could not come at a worse time for the Vatican, already hit by revelations that it sheltered pedophile priests. The corruption probe has given new hope to Holocaust survivors who tried unsuccessfully to sue in the United States, alleging that Nazi loot was stored in the Vatican Bank.

Yet the scandal is hardly the first for the centuries-old bank. In 1986, a Vatican financial adviser died after drinking cyanide-laced coffee in prison. Another was found dangling from a rope under London's Blackfriars Bridge in 1982, his pockets stuffed with money and stones. The incidents blackened the bank's reputation, raised suspicions of ties with the Mafia, and cost the Vatican hundreds of millions of dollars in legal clashes with Italian authorities.

On Sept. 21, financial police seized assets from a Vatican Bank account at the Rome branch of Credito Artigiano SpA. Investigators said the Vatican had failed to furnish information on the origin or destination of the funds as required by Italian law.

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The bulk of the money, €20 million ($26 million), was destined for JP Morgan in Frankfurt, with the remainder going to Banca del Fucino.

Prosecutors alleged the Vatican ignored regulations that foreign banks must communicate to Italian financial authorities where their money has come from. All banks have declined to comment.

In another case, financial police in Sicily said in late October that they uncovered money laundering involving the use of a Vatican Bank account by a priest in Rome whose uncle was convicted of Mafia association.

Authorities say some €250,000 euros, illegally obtained from the regional government of Sicily for a fish breeding company, was sent to the priest by his father as a "charitable donation," then sent back to Sicily from a Vatican Bank account using a series of home banking operations to make it difficult to trace.

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The prosecutors' office stated in court papers last month that while the bank has expressed a "generic and stated will" to conform to international standards, "there is no sign that the institutions of the Catholic church are moving in that direction." It said its investigation had found "exactly the opposite."

Legal waters are murky because of the Vatican's special status as an independent state within Italy. This time, Italian investigators were able to move against the Vatican Bank because the Bank of Italy classifies it as a foreign financial institution operating in Italy. However, in one of the 1980s scandals, prosecutors could not arrest then-bank head Paul Marcinkus, an American archbishop, because Italy's highest court ruled he had immunity.

Marcinkus, who died in 2006 and always proclaimed his innocence, was the inspiration for Francis Ford Coppola's character Archbishop Gilday in "Godfather III."

The Vatican has pledged to comply with EU financial standards and create a watchdog authority. Gianluigi Nuzzi, author of "Vatican SpA," a 2009 book outlining the bank's shady dealings, said it's possible the Vatican is serious about coming clean, but he isn't optimistic.

"I don't trust them," he said. "After the previous big scandals, they said 'we'll change' and they didn't. It's happened too many times."

He said the structure and culture of the institution is such that powerful account-holders can exert pressure on management, and some managers are simply resistant to change.

The list of account-holders is secret, though bank officials say there are some 40,000-45,000 among religious congregations, clergy, Vatican officials and lay people with Vatican connections.

The bank chairman is Ettore Gotti Tedeschi, also chairman of Banco Santander's Italian operations, who was brought in last year to bring the Vatican Bank in line with Italian and international regulations. Gotti Tedeschi has been on a very public speaking tour extolling the benefits of a morality-based financial system.

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"He went to sell the new image ... not knowing that inside, the same things were still happening," Nuzzi said. "They continued to do these transfers without the names, not necessarily in bad faith, but out of habit."

It doesn't help that Gotti Tedeschi himself and the bank's No. 2 official, Paolo Cipriani, are under investigation for alleged violations of money-laundering laws. They were both questioned by Rome prosecutors on Sept. 30, although no charges have been filed.

In his testimony, Gotti Tedeschi said he knew next to nothing about the bank's day-to-day operations, noting that he had been on the job less than a year and only works at the bank two full days a week.

According to the prosecutors' interrogation transcripts obtained by AP, Gotti Tedeschi deflected most questions about the suspect transactions to Cipriani. Cipriani in turn said that when the Holy See transferred money without identifying the sender, it was the Vatican's own money, not a client's.

Gotti Tedeschi declined a request for an interview but said by e-mail that he questioned the motivations of prosecutors. In a speech in October, he described a wider plot against the church, decrying "personal attacks on the pope, the facts linked to pedophilia (that) still continue now with the issues that have seen myself involved."

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As the Vatican proclaims its innocence, the courts are holding firm. An Italian court has rejected a Vatican appeal to lift the order to seize assets.

The Vatican Bank was founded in 1942 by Pope Pius XII to manage assets destined for religious or charitable works. The bank, located in the tower of Niccolo V, is not open to the public, but people who use it described the layout to the AP.

Top prelates have a special entrance manned by security guards. There are about 100 staffers, 10 bank windows, a basement vault for safe deposit boxes, and ATMs that open in Latin but can be accessed in modern languages. In another concession to modern times, the bank recently began issuing credit cards.

In the scandals two decades ago, Sicilian financier Michele Sindona was appointed by the pope to manage the Vatican's foreign investments. He also brought in Roberto Calvi, a Catholic banker in northern Italy.

Sindona's banking empire collapsed in the mid-1970s and his links to the mob were exposed, sending him to prison and his eventual death from poisoned coffee. Calvi then inherited his role.

Calvi headed the Banco Ambrosiano, which collapsed in 1982 after the disappearance of $1.3 billion in loans made to dummy companies in Latin America. The Vatican had provided letters of credit for the loans.

Calvi was found a short time later hanging from scaffolding on Blackfriars Bridge, his pockets loaded with 11 pounds of bricks and $11,700 in various currencies. After an initial ruling of suicide, murder charges were filed against five people, including a major Mafia figure, but all were acquitted after trial.

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While denying wrongdoing, the Vatican Bank paid $250 million to Ambrosiano's creditors.

Both the Calvi and Sindona cases remain unsolved.

___

AP reporter Martino Villosio contributed from Rome.Pope John Paul I died alone in September 1978 only a month after his election to the Papacy. The suddenness of the death, and the Vatican's difficulties with the ceremonial and legal death procedures (such as issuing a legitimate death certificate) have resulted in several conspiracy theories.

Discrepancies in the Vatican's account of the events surrounding John Paul I's death — its inaccurate statements about who found the body, what he had been reading, when and where he had been found and whether an autopsy could be carried out^{[citation
needed]} — produced a number of conspiracy theories, many associated with the Vatican Bank, which owned many shares in Banco Ambrosiano.

Some conspiracy theorists connect the death of John Paul (in September 1978) with the image of the "bishop dressed in white" said to have been seen by Lucia Santos and her cousins Jacinta and Francisco Marto during the visitations of Our Lady of Fátima in 1917.^[1]^[2] In a letter to a colleague, John Paul had said he was deeply moved by having met Lucia and vowed to perform the Consecration of Russia.^[3]

David Yallop's book

David Yallop's book In God's Name proposed the theory that the pope was in "potential danger" because of corruption in the Istituto per le Opere Religiose (IOR, Institute of Religious Works, the Vatican's most powerful financial institution, commonly known as the Vatican Bank), which owned many shares in Banco Ambrosiano. The Vatican Bank lost about a quarter of a billion dollars.

This corruption was real and is known to have involved the bank's head, Paul Marcinkus, along with Roberto Calvi of the Banco Ambrosiano^[4] Calvi was a member of P2, an illegal Italian Masonic lodge.^[5] Calvi was found dead in London, after disappearing just before the corruption became public. His death was initially ruled suicide, and a second inquest – ordered by his family – then returned an "open verdict".^[6]

Upon publication of his book, Yallop agreed to donate every penny he made from sales to a charity of the Vatican's choice if they agreed to investigate his central claim, that when the body of the pope was discovered, his contorted hand gripped a piece of paper that was later destroyed because it named high ranking members of the curia who were to be handed over to the authorities for their role in numerous corruption scandals and the laundering of mafia drug money. One of the names believed to be on the paper was that of bishop Paul Marcinkus, who was later promoted by Pope John Paul II to Pro-President of Vatican City, making him the third most powerful person in the Vatican, after the pope and the secretary of state. None of Yallop's claims have thus far been acknowledged by the Vatican.

[edit] Abbé George de Nantes

Traditionalist theologian Abbé George de Nantes spent much of his life building a case for murder against the Vatican, collecting statements from people who knew the Pope before and after his election. His writings go into detail about the banks and about John Paul I's supposed discovery of a number of Freemason priests in the Vatican, along with a number of his proposed reforms and devotion to Fátima.^[7] This discovery would be problematic if it were true, since the Catholic Church states that it is incompatible to be a freemason and a Catholic.^[8]

[edit] John Cornwell's book

In his book A Thief in the Night, British historian and journalist John Cornwell examines and challenges Yallop’s points of suspicion.

Yallop’s murder theory requires that the pope’s body be found at 4:30 or 4:45 a.m., one hour earlier than official reports estimated. He bases this on an early story by the Italian news service ANSA that garbled the time and misrepresented the layout of the papal apartments. Yallop claims to have had testimony from Sister Vincenza Taffarel (the nun who found the Pope's body) to this effect but refused to show Cornwell his transcripts.

[edit] Lucien Gregoire's book

Lucien Gregoire's investigations into the sudden death of John Paul I derive considerable authority from the fact that he personally knew Albino Luciani, through his own friendship with Luciani's personal assistant, whilst Luciani was Bishop of Vittorio Veneto. This same personal assistant was, himself, killed in a mysterious 'hit-and-run' accident, outside St Peter's, a few days after the death of his previous master.

Gregoire's investigations continue the work of Avro Manhattan, who also died in allegedly strange circumstances, whilst visiting his familial home in South Shields, County Durham, in the United Kingdom. Manhattan's death is one of the deaths allegedly associated with those who were close to, or supportive of, John Paul I. The list of approximately thirty deaths includes his predecessor Paul VI, the great Belgian Primate Leon Joseph Suenens, Nikodim the youthful Orthodox Patriarch of St Petersburg, and numerous senior members of the Swiss Guard.

[edit] In popular culture

Malachi Martin's book Vatican: A Novel ^[9] is a novel based on recent papal history. Although officially a work of fiction, Martin proposes the theory that the pope was murdered by the Soviet Union because he would abdicate the benign policy of his two predecessors, John XXIII and Paul VI, towards accommodating communism, and once again condemn it as an atheistic totalitarian ideology. Martin believed that the church structure was infiltrated for decades by illuminati agents who reached positions of high influence and rank, such as Jean-Marie Villot, at that time Cardinal Secretary of State.

Lead singer of The Fall, Mark E. Smith wrote a play entitled Hey, Luciani, about the purported murder conspiracy, which was produced and performed in London. Several songs from the play were released as Fall singles.

Australian comedian Shaun Micallef wrote a one-act play entitled "The Death of Pope John Paul I". In it the pope is found in bed, sitting upright, unable to be woken. Two cardinals attempt to perform the ritualistic tapping with the silver hammer but no-one can locate the proper instrument, so they use a claw hammer instead.

The film The Pope Must Die takes its title from a passage in Yallop's book. The film's plot - a poor country priest becomes a reforming Pope, pitched against a corrupt and Mafia-riddled Vatican - is a parody of Luciani's career, ending in comedy rather than tragedy.

The Last Confession is a play written by Roger Crane. It is a thriller that tracks the dramatic tensions, crises of faith, and political manoeuvrings inside the Vatican surrounding the death of Pope John Paul I. The play toured the UK in the spring of 2007, before being transferred to the Theatre Royal, Haymarket, with a cast including David Suchet. It was subsequently broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 4 October 2008. In October 2010 the play was brought to continental Europe by the Antwerp Theater Group "De Speling".

The 1990 motion picture The Godfather Part III featured a story element depicting Società Generale Immobiliare, the largest real estate company in the world whose former largest shareholder was the Holy See, and the Vatican Bank involved in organized crime during and after the death of the old pope and the election of a fictional Cardinal named Lamberto to the papacy. Lamberto takes the papal name "John Paul I" and, like the real Pope John Paul I, he mysteriously dies.

A storyline in the comic book series Warrior Nun Areala features a flashback back to John Paul I's pontificate. Shortly after being elected to the papacy John Paul discovers a conspiracy of demon worshiping freemasons in the Vatican and works to root them out. Discovered, the Masons kill him in order to continue their goal to destroy the Catholic Church. While John Paul does die, the Warrior Nuns manage to avenge him.

In The Company: A Novel of the CIA by Robert Littell, Pope John Paul I is murdered by a KGB hired killer.

The 22nd episode of Brad Meltzer's Decoded "Vatican", featured theories and investigation on Pope John Paul I death.

[edit] Notes

^ John Paul I at Catholic Counter-Reformation
^ Chapter 4 of Whole Truth about Fátima, sections 7, 8 and 9, webpage found 2010-04-29.
^ Quoted in Camillo Bassotto's book My Heart Is Still in Venice, a biography of John Paul I (Krinon, 1990).
^ Marcinkus, at the time head of the Vatican Bank, was indicted in Italy in 1982 as an accessory in the $3.5 billion collapse of Banco Ambrosiano.
^ Calvi murder: The mystery of God's banker, The Independent, June 7, 2007
^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/2537853.stm
^ John Paul I at Catholic Counter-Reformation, Abbé de Nantes' website, in English.
^ Declaration on Masonic Associations, Vatican website, in English.
^ Martin, Malachi, Vatican: A Novel, Harper & Row, New York, 1986 ISBN 0-06-015478-0

Banco Ambrosiano was an Italian bank which collapsed in 1982. At the centre of the bank's failure was its chairman, Roberto Calvi and his membership in the illegal Masonic Lodge Propaganda Due (aka P2). Vatican Bank was Banco Ambrosiano's main shareholder, and the death of Pope John Paul I in 1978 is rumored to be linked to the Ambrosiano scandal, giving one of the subplots of The Godfather Part III. Vatican Bank was also accused of funneling covert United States funds to Solidarity and the Contras through Banco Ambrosiano.

Franco Ratti, chairman.
Carlo Canesi, senior manager then chairman of Banco Ambrosiano Holding starting from 1965.
Roberto Calvi, general manager of Banco Ambrosiano since 1971, appointed chairman from 1975 to his death in June 1982. He was often referred to as "God's Banker" because of his close financial ties with the Vatican.
Paul Marcinkus, president of Vatican Bank (aka "Istituto per le Opere di Religione"), had been a director of Ambrosiano Overseas, based in Nassau, Bahamas.
Carlo De Benedetti became deputy-chairman for less than two months, after Roberto Calvi's trial.
Nuovo Banco Ambrosiano is under Giovanni Bazoli.
Carlos Guido Natal Coda, head of the Argentine branch of Banco Ambrosiano (Coda was the predecessor of Emilio Massera as Commander-in-Chief of the Argentine Navy) ^[1]

[edit] Before 1981

The Banco Ambrosiano was founded in Milan in 1896 by Giuseppe Tovini, a Catholic advocate in Valle Camonica, and was named after Saint Ambrose, the fourth century archbishop of the city. Tovini's purpose was to create a Catholic bank as a counter-balance to Italy's "lay" banks, and its goals were "serving moral organisations, pious works, and religious bodies set up for charitable aims." The bank came to be known as the "priests' bank"; one chairman was Franco Ratti, nephew to Pope Pius XI. In the 1960s, the bank began to expand its business, opening a holding company in Luxembourg in 1963 which came to be known as Banco Ambrosiano Holding. This was under the direction of Carlo Canesi, then a senior manager, and from 1965 chairman.

In 1967, Canesi brought Roberto Calvi into Ambrosiano. In 1971, Calvi became general manager, and in 1975 he was appointed chairman. Calvi expanded Ambrosiano's interests further; these included creating a number of off-shore companies in the Bahamas and South America; a controlling interest in the Banca Cattolica del Veneto; and funds for the publishing house Rizzoli to finance the Corriere della Sera newspaper (giving Calvi control behind the scenes for the benefit of his associates in the P2 masonic lodge). Calvi also involved the Vatican Bank, Istituto per le Opere di Religione, in his dealings, and was close to Bishop Paul Marcinkus, the bank's chairman. Ambrosiano also provided funds for political parties in Italy, and for both the Somoza dictatorship in Nicaragua and its Sandinista opposition. There are also rumours that it provided money for Solidarity in Poland (it has been widely alleged that the Vatican Bank funded Solidarity).

Calvi used his complex network of overseas banks and companies to move money out of Italy, to inflate share prices, and to secure massive unsecured loans. In 1978, the Bank of Italy produced a report on Ambrosiano that predicted future disaster and led to criminal investigations. However, soon afterward the investigating Milanese magistrate, Alessandrini, was killed by a left-wing terrorist group, while the Bank of Italy official who superintended the inspection, Mario Sarcinelli, found himself imprisoned on charges that were later dismissed.

[edit] After 1981

In 1981, police raided the office of Propaganda Due masonic lodge so they could catch the Worshipful Master Licio Gelli, and found further evidence against Roberto Calvi. Calvi was imprisoned, put on trial, and sentenced to four years in jail. However, he was released pending an appeal, and he kept his position at the bank. Other alarming developments followed: Carlo de Benedetti of Olivetti bought into the bank and became deputy chairman, only to leave two months later after receiving Mafia threats and lack of co-operation from Calvi. His replacement, a longtime employee named Roberto Rosone, was wounded in a mafia shooting incident. The criminal organization responsible for this shooting was the Banda della Magliana (Magliana Gang) which had taken over Rome's underworld in the late 1970s, and has been related to various political events of the anni di piombo (years of lead).

In 1982, it was discovered that the bank could not account for $1.287 billion (equivalent to $3.1 billion in present day terms). Calvi fled the country on a false passport, and Rosone arranged for the Bank of Italy to take over. Calvi's personal secretary, Graziella Corrocher, left a note denouncing Calvi before jumping from her office window to her death. Calvi himself was found hanging from Blackfriars Bridge in London on June 18.

During July 1982, funds to the off-shore interests were cut off, leading to their collapse, and in August the bank was replaced by the Nuovo Banco Ambrosiano under Giovanni Bazoli. There was much argument about who should take responsibility for losses incurred by the Old Ambrosiano's off-shore companies, and the Vatican eventually agreed to pay out a substantial sum without accepting liability.

In April 1992, Carlo De Benedetti, former deputy chairman of Banco Ambrosiano, and 32 other people were convicted of fraud by a Milan court in connection with the collapse of the bank.^[2] Benedetti was sentenced to six years and four months in prison,^[2] but the sentence was overturned in April 1998 by the Court of Cassation.^[3]

In 1994, former Socialist Prime Minister Bettino Craxi was indicted in the Banco Ambrosiano case, along with Licio Gelli, head of Propaganda Due, and former Justice minister Claudio Martelli.^[4] In April 1998, the Court of Cassation confirmed a 12 year sentence for Licio Gelli for the Ambrosiano crash.^[5]

[edit] Clearstream scandal

Further information: Clearstream

Just before the media revealed the Ambrosiano scandal, Gérard Soisson, manager of transaction clearing company Clearstream, was found dead in Corsica, two months after Ernest Backes's dismissal from Clearstream in May 1983. Banco Ambrosiano was one of the many banks to have un-published accounts in Clearstream. Backes, formerly the third highest ranking officer of Clearstream and a primary source for Denis Robert's book on Clearstream's scandal, Revelation$, claims he "was fired because (he) knew too much about the Ambrosiano scandal. When Soisson died, the Ambrosiano affair wasn't yet known as a scandal. (After it was revealed) I realized that Soisson and I had been at the crossroads. We moved all those transactions known later in the scandal to Lima and other branches. Nobody even knew there was a Banco Ambrosiano branch in Lima and other South American countries." ^[6] As of 2005, while the Italian justice has opened up again the investigation concerning the murder of Roberto Calvi, Ambrosiano's chairman, it has asked the support of Ernest Backes, and will investigate Gerard Soisson's death, according to Lucy Komisar. Licio Gelli, headmaster of P2 masonic lodge, and mafioso Giuseppe "Pippo" Calò, are being prosecuted for the assassination of Roberto Calvi.

[edit] Roberto Calvi's 1982 murder

Journalist David Yallop believes that Calvi, with the assistance of P2, may have been responsible for the death of Albino Luciani, who, as Pope John Paul I, was planning a reform of Vatican finances. This is one of many conspiracy theories about Luciani, who died of a heart attack. However, Calvi's family maintains that he was an honest man manipulated by others. Their perspective informs Robert Hutchison's 1997 book Their Kingdom Come: Inside the Secret World of Opus Dei. According to the magistrates who indicted Licio Gelli, P2's headmaster, and Giuseppe Calò for Calvi's murder, Gelli would have ordered his death to punish him for embezzlement of his and the mafia's money, while the mafia wanted to stop him from revealing the way Calvi helped it in money laundering.

[edit] See also

[edit] References

^ Susana Viau and Eduardo Tagliaferro, Carlos Bartffeld, Mason y Amigo de Massera, Fue Embajador en Yugoslavia Cuando Se Vendieron Armas a Croacia - En el mismo barco, Pagina 12, December 14, 1998 (Spanish)
^ ^a ^b (English) "Court Convicts Financier, 23 Others in Billion-Dollar Failure of Italian Bank," Rocky Mountains News, April 17, 1992
^ "High court overturns conviction of Olivetti chairman in bank collapse," Associated Press, April 22, 1998 (English)
^ "Former Italian premier indicted in bank scandal", The Tampa Tribune, May 13, 1994 (English)
^ "Top Italian fugitive Licio Gelli arrested in France," Associated Press, September 10, 1998 (English)
^ [1]

[edit] Bibliography

Rupert Cornwell, God's Banker: The Life and Death of Roberto Calvi, Victor Gollancz Ltd, 1984.
Malachi Martin - Rich Church, Poor Church (Putnam, New York, 1984) ISBN 0-399-12906-5
David Yallop, In God's Name: An Investigation into the Murder of Pope John Paul I, Corgi, 1987
Philip Willan, The Last Supper: the Mafia, the Masons and the Killing of Roberto Calvi, Constable & Robinson, 2007(ISBN 978-1-84529-296-6)
Sandom, J.G., Gospel Truths, Bantam/Random House, 1992 & 2009 (ISBN 0553589970)

[edit] External links

Nazi gold (German: Raubgold, "stolen gold") is the gold transferred by Nazi Germany to overseas banks during the Second World War. The regime executed a policy of looting the assets of its victims to finance the war, collecting the looted assets in central depositories. The occasional transfer of gold in return for currency took place in collusion with many individual collaborative institutions. The precise identities of those institutions, as well as the exact extent of the transactions, remain unclear.

The present whereabouts of Nazi gold that disappeared into European banking institutions in 1945 has been the subject of several books, conspiracy theories, and a civil suit brought in January 2000 against the Vatican Bank, the Franciscan Order, and other defendants

so

FLEUR DE LIS ISIS FLEUR DE LIS

The fleur-de-lis or fleur-de-lys (plural: fleurs-de-lis)^{[pron
1]} is a stylized lily (in French, fleur means flower, and lis means lily) or iris that is used as a decorative design or symbol. It may be "at one and the same time, political, dynastic, artistic, emblematic, and symbolic", especially in heraldry.^[4] It is represented in Unicode at U+269C (⚜) in the Miscellaneous Symbols block.

In the United Kingdom, a fleur-de-lis has appeared in the official arms of the Norroy King of Arms for hundreds of years.

In Mauritius, slaves were branded with a fleur-de-lis.

The Welsh poet Hedd Wyn used Fleur de Lys as his pen name when he won his chair at the National Eisteddfod of Wales (Eisteddfod Genedlaethol Cymru), the national poetry contest.

Fleurs-de-lis appear on military insignia and the logos of many organizations. During the 20th century the symbol was adopted by various Scouting organizations worldwide for their badges. Architects and designers use it alone and as a repeated motif in a wide range of contexts, from ironwork to bookbinding, especially where a French context is implied.

In the Middle Ages the symbols of lily and fleur-de-lis (lis is French for "lily") overlapped considerably in Christian religious art. Michel Pastoureau, the historian, says that until about 1300 they were found in depictions of Jesus, but gradually they took on Marian symbolism and were associated with the Song of Solomon's "lily among thorns" (lilium inter spinas), understood as a reference to Mary. Other scripture and religious literature in which the lily symbolizes purity and chastity also helped establish the flower as an iconographic attribute of the Virgin. It was also believed that the Fluer-de-lis also represented the holy trinity.^[13]

In medieval England, from the mid-12th century, a noblewoman's seal often showed the lady with a fleur-de-lis, drawing on the Marian connotations of "female virtue and spirituality".^[32] Images of Mary holding the flower first appeared in the 11th century on coins issued by cathedrals dedicated to her, and next on the seals of cathedral chapters, starting with Notre Dame de Paris in 1146. A standard portrayal was of Mary carrying the flower in her right hand, just as she is shown in that church's Virgin of Paris statue (with lily), and in the centre of the stained glass rose window (with fleur-de-lis sceptre) above its main entrance. The flowers may be "simple fleurons, sometimes garden lilies, sometimes genuine heraldic fleurs-de-lis".^[24] As attributes of the Madonna, they are often seen in pictures of the Annunciation, notably in those of Sandro Botticelli and Filippo Lippi. Lippi also uses both flowers in other related contexts: for instance, in his Madonna in the Forest.

The three petals of the heraldic design reflect a widespread association with the Holy Trinity, with the band on the bottom symbolizing Mary. The tradition says that without Mary you can not understand the Trinity since it was she who bore The Son.^[33] a tradition going back to 14th century France,^[14] added onto the earlier belief that they also represented faith, wisdom and chivalry.

"Flower of light" symbolism has sometimes been understood from the archaic variant fleur-de-luce (see Latin lux, luc- = "light"), but the Oxford English Dictionary suggests this arose from the spelling, not from the etymology.^[34]

connecINGt the dots on an amorphous path of symbolism. Basically demonstrating that the fleur de lis is in fact an illuminati symbol that represents the tree & the fruit of the knowledge of good & evil & is associated with the opening of Eve's eyes & today the opening of the mind's 3rd eye & alot more for example the satan seed bloodlines of the illuminati like the merovingian's. The fleur de lis also equals 666 using the system of A=6 B=12 C=18 Z=156 so this further reiterates this understanding of the opened 3rd eye 666 knowledge of evil. The alien connotation should be understood as having more to do with the occult demonic realms & possession. The pine cone is amorphous also in it's symbolic understanding. For instance the seed cone in one faucet of consideration represents the satanic serpent seed bloodlines while another faucet represents the pineal gland & the demonic impartation of knowledge & or demonic possession. The Sumerian Tree of Life is a lie & this is obvious & even very signature of that old serpent the devil which actually confirms that this is indeed symbolic of the tree of the knowledge of good & evil. The cone is often depicted as a cycad seed cone. The reseaon for doing this might be that this plant is known to be an old variety of tree & just serves as a signature of a very old tree i.e. the tree of the knowledge of good & evil. Also notable of pine cones is the golden mean spiral & the knowledge that this is a signature of hyperdimensional realms better demonstrated in the anomalies of platonic solids. It is very notable that the humanoid figure in the flying winged disc above the tree is holding the ring. This is also very amorphous symbolically & I will quickly just say that it appears to symbolize both the group or cult or ring or clan then on another level symbolizes the infinite or the heaven realm while it also the open 3rd eye & I make the case for this understanding in my other videos about fnords & fronds & the fleur de lis. The humanoid & the winged bird humanoids should be understood as the fallen angels & satan. The sumerian humans appear to be partaking from the tree & perhaps aspire to ascend to the higher realm where the humanoid in the winged disc is seated. Note how that in one portion of this video you see that the anakim bird headed humanoid holding the pine cone behind the regular looking human may symbolize that this bird headed humanoid is influencing the human through this pinecone or pinael gland because the regular human is conforming to the same movements as the anakim behind him.

THE SONG (HEBANAE ) Herbanae is a Latin word taht means "government, reins"

MINIATURE COINS:

IMAGES http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images;_ylt=A0oGdW.iKUhPuU4AyWZXNyoA?p=miniature%20coins&fr=slv8-att&fr2=piv-web

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SCOTTISH MONEY

SCOTTISH COINS

An example of a Dupondius of Vespasian coin
(AD 69–79) typical of the Roman coins diposited

at the Cardean Fort Angus in the late first century

The coinage of Scotland covers a range of currency and coins in Scotland during Classical antiquity, the reign of ancient provincial kings, royal dynasties of the ancient Kingdom of Scotland and the later Mediaeval and Early modern periods.

scottish coins

David Dei Gracia REX SCT TOR

scottish money 70 ad to 400 ad

The earliest coins in Scotland were introduced by the Roman provinces of Britain that were obtained from trade with the westernmost outpost of the Rome. Far from being isolated, the Celts of Caledonia, north of Hadrian's Wall, developed trade to the general benefit of the population, to the north of the Wall.^[1] Roman coins appear over a wide range across the country, especially sites near the Antonine Wall.^[1] Hadrian's Wall was also regarded as a means to regulate social traffic and trade north, rather than a military defence against the free northern tribes of the Caledoni.^[2] Civil settlements arose along south of the wall with shops and taverns that facilitated trade between the Empire and free north.^[3] It is possible to recognise groupings of coins from certain periods, during the Flavian and Antonine occupations; e.g. Cardean Fort Angus where Roman dupondius coins AD 69–79 date to the reign of Emperor Vespasian.^[1] Other sites include coins from North Uist dating to the 4th century until recently was though to be beyond the sphere of known trade routes.^[4] Other native sites include the Fairy Knowe broch Buchlyvie, and the broch and dun at Gargunnock in Stirlingshire.^[1] Some sites include substantial silver treasure hoards most likely buried or abandoned in either Roman or native pots.^[5] Indicating the Roman governor of Britain paid large sums of money to the inhabitants of southern Scotland and possibly bribing the northern Caledonians to maitain peaceful relations. Payments to chieftains are recorded in four areas; Edinburgh, Fife, Aberdeen and the Moray Firth.^[6] This may indicate such discoveries (e.g. the Birnie hoard of between 200–400 silver coins) were deposited as votive offerings.^[6] Examples including coinage of Constantine II (337–342) with over 20 such hoards found throughout Scotland. Rare examples includes a base silver (potin) coin of Ptolemy XIII of Egypt, 80–51 BC^[1] In AD 410, trade ceased as the Roman Empire withdrew from the island of Britain.

SCOTTISH MONEY 600 AD TO 900 AD

As the Roman Empire retreated from Britain various kingdoms sprouted up to the south of Scotland.^[7] One of these Northumbria, soon expanded into the north as far as the kingdom of Strathclyde. Thus it controlled the southern parts of what is now Scotland, and the bronze Sceat coins of the Northumbrian Kings circulated freely in what is now Scotland. This coin was issued from 837–854. Anglo-saxon coins were minted in Northumberland, however due to the extensive trade routes of the Vikings sceatt coins were also minted in Frisia and Jutland during Anglo-Saxon times and coins of this period indicate the extent of Scottish trade not only with Northumberland but also ith continental Europe. Norse also introduced some form of coinage, and coins from as far away as Byzantium and the Arabic countries have been found in sites in Scandinavia, including Norway which has strong links with Scotland in the early Middle Ages.

SCOTTISH CROWN 1100 AD 1600 AD

The first king of Scots to produce his own coinage was David I (1124–53). David I has been regarded as an anglicising force in Scotland, and indeed, the coins bear an uncanny resemblance to those of Stephen, King of England. The Penny was minted at Berwick, and had his name as "Tavit". The reverse had a short cross with pellets in the four quarters. Later in his reign coins were minted in Berwick, Roxburgh and Edinburgh. By 1250, the country had no less than 16 mints, scattered from Inverness to Berwick. Later influences for Scottish coinage were the German speaking lands and France, both of which would contribute names such as "dollar" (Thaler), "testoun" (from French tête meaning head, on account of the portrait on it), and "merk" (or "mark").

In 1485, according to IH Stewart, the groat bore "the first real coin portrait to be seen north of the Alps".

During the 16th century, production of coinage moved entirely to Edinburgh, although Stirling produced one issue of bawbees.

UNION OF THE CROWNS FROM 1503

With the Union of the Crowns in 1603, Scottish coins became more closely based on English models, rather than Continental ones. At this period, it was still not uncommon for coins to be used in more than one country, partly because of their metal value. During the reign of Charles I, mechanical minting was introduced.

Following the union, James VI introduced the first gold coins that were similar on both sides of the border, with an exchange rate of 1 pound sterling to 12 pound Scots.^[8]

[edit] 1707–10 recoinage

Following the 1707 union between the Kingdom of Scotland and the Kingdom of England, the Scottish silver (but not gold nor copper) coinage was replaced with new silver coins, with the aim of creating a common currency for the new Kingdom of Great Britain as required by the Treaty of Union.^[8] The exercise was conducted under the guidance of Sir Isaac Newton, who had previously directed the recoinage in England some years earlier in his role as Warden of the Mint (and subsequently as Master of the Mint).

Despite fluctuations in the exchange rate since 1603, and a 1697 proclamation setting the ratio at 13:1, a 12:1 ratio was applied to the recoinage, although compensation was paid. The new coinage was made using Troy weights (12 Troy ounces to the pound), rather than the traditional Scots weights (16 Troy ounces to the pound). Coins were minted in both London and Edinburgh, the latter inscribed with the letter 'E' under the bust of the monarch to permit them to be distinguished.^[8] Under the supervision of moneyers from the Tower Mint in London, a weight of 103,346 pounds in crowns, half-crowns, shillings, and sixpences were minted at the Edinburgh Mint with a value of £320,372 and 12 shillings, ^[9] equivalent to US$18,588,700 (£10,129,200) at 2008 average silver prices and exchange rates.^[10]^[11]

As a result of the recoinage, foreign coins, which were frequently used alongside the local currency, stopped being legal tender on 6 October 1707. Pre-Union 40, 20 and 10 shilling coins ceased to be legal tender on 10 February 1708, but were temporarily put back into circulation before finally ceasing as legal tender on June 1st, along with coins of ½, 1, 2, and 4 merks, 5 shillings, and the 3 shilling 6 pence coin.

The last batch of new coins, consisting of silver shillings and half-crowns were delivered on 5 October 1709, and were to be the last coins to be minted in Scotland.^[8]

[edit] Subsequent developments

Article 16 of the Treaty of Union stipulated that Scotland was to keep its own mint, but this, as with many others, has not been followed.

"That, from and after the Union, the coin shall be of the same standard and value throughout the United Kingdom as now in England, and a Mint shell be continued in Scotland under the same rules as the Mint in England ; and the present officers of the Mint continued subject to such regulations and alterations as Her Majestie, her heirs or successors, or the Parliament of Great Britain shall think fit."

—Article XVI of the Acts of Union^[12]

Although the Edinburgh Mint retained its permanent officials (though not other staff) for a further hundred years, until 1814, minting ceased a mere two years after Union, despite several subsequent proposals to restart production. The mint itself was finally abolished in 1817 and sold in 1830.^[13] Abolition caused a low level of protest, mentioned by Sir Walter Scott, and continued to be protested against by Nationalist pamphlets into the 1950s and beyond. The title of 'Governor of the Mint of Scotland', which passed to the Chancellor of the Exchequer under the Coinage Act 1870, was finally abolished with the passing of the Coinage Act 1971.^[13]

The transition from Scottish coinage to English did not occur overnight. Scottish coinage was still in circulation in the later 18th century, but the changeover was made a little easier due to common currency in the nomenclature. Pound Sterling is still translated as Punnd Sasannach (English pound) in Scottish Gaelic ^[14] Certain old coin names, such as bawbee,^[15] continued in colloquial usage into the 20th century. Others, such as mark and dollar, would be more associated with various foreign currencies by contemporary Scots.

Currently, three Scottish banks produce their own banknotes (Bank of Scotland, Royal Bank of Scotland and Clydesdale Bank), but no coinage. Scotland is the only part of the UK where one pound notes are still in usage (although they can be found in the Isle of Man and Channel Islands).

[edit]

As with Scottish weights and measures, many of the Scottish denominations bore the same names as those in England, but were of slightly different values. The dates, and first kings to issue them are included:

Pistole – Gold, 12 pounds Scots
Dollar – Replacement for the ryal, 60 Scots shillings (James VI)
Ryal – Gold, 1565
Crown or Lion – Gold (James I)
Half-crown, Demi-Lion or Demys – Gold (James I)
Ducat or “bonnet” – 40 shillings, 1539 (James V)
Mark or merk – Gold (giving rise to the term markland)
Noble – Gold, worth half a mark, 1357 (David II, reintroduced by Robert III)
Unicorn - Gold, 18 shillings Scots, 1484/5 (James III)
Half-unicorn - Gold, 9 shillings Scots (James IV)
Testoun – silver, 1553. Was produced in France with the new process of mill and screw, being the first milled coinage of Scotland.^[16]
Bawbee – Billon, six pence from 1537
Shilling
Groat – Silver, equivalent to four pence, from 1357 (giving rise to the term groatland)
Half-groat – Silver, equivalent to two pence, from 1357
Turner – Billon, two pence (James VI), later copper.
Bodle – Copper, two pence (Charles II)
Hardhead – also called Lion, billon coin circulated in the reigns of Mary and James VI
Penny – Billon, one of the earliest coins, dating from David I. Later made of copper; giving rise to the term pennyland.
Halfpennies – Initially literally half of a penny, these became minted coins in their own right in c.1280. Later made of copper.
Farthing or quarter-penny – These were originally quarters of pennies, but as with Halfpennies, became coins in their own right in c.1280. Later made of copper.
Plack

[edit] Scottish monarchs who issued coins

David I (1124–53)
Malcolm IV (1153–65)
William the Lion (1165–14)
Alexander II (1214–49)
Alexander III (1249–86)
John Balliol (1292–96)
Robert the Bruce (1306–29)
David II (1329–71)
Robert II (1371–90)
Robert III (1390–1406)
James I (1406–37)
James II (1437–60)
James III (1460–88)
James IV (1488–1513)
James V (1513–42)
Mary, Queen of Scots (1542–67)
James VI (1567–1625)
Charles I (1625–49)
Charles II (1660–85)
James VII (1685–88)
William and Mary (1689–94)
William II (1694–1701)
Anne (1701–14, no coins minted after Union)

[edit] Notes

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Roman coins found in Scotland, 1971–82 by Anne S. Robertson
^ Celtic culture: a historical encyclopedia, Volumes 1–5 By John T. Koch
^ Borders and border politics in a globalizing world By Paul Ganster, David E. Lorey
^ Ancient coins discovered on beach, BBC News Online, 12 July 2007
^ Bribing the Barbarians, National Museums Scotland
^ ^a ^b Romans paid Scots protection money, The Independent, 3 November 2000. Retrieved 18 December 2000
^ Robinson, Christine (2003), Get set for English language, Edinburgh University Press, p. 62, ISBN 9780748615445
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Sir Isaac Newton and the Scottish recoinage, 1707–10, Athol L Murray, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1997
^ Notes on a collection of coining instruments in the National Museum of Antiquities, Edinburgh, J W Hocking, Curator and Librarian of the Royal Mint.
^ Price History: 2000 to Present, The Silver Institute
^ http://www.oanda.com
^ Stewart: The Scottish Coinage, p. 120 & ff.
^ ^a ^b The Scottish Mint after the recoinage, 1709–1836, Athol L Murray, Society of Antiquaries of Scotland, 1999
^ The Scottish Gaelic Column, Scottish Radiance
^ Bawbee, Dictionary of Phrase and Fable, E. Cobham Brewer, 1894
^ Stewart: The Scottish Coinage

[edit] References and further reading

Donald Bateson. Scottish Coins. Shire Book, Bucks, 1987, ISBN 0-85263-847-7
Jean Belaubre. Dictionaire de Numismatique médiévale occidentale. Paris, Léopard d'Or, 1996. ISBN 2-86377-121-3
Holmes, Nicholas, Scottish Coins, NMS Publishing, Edinburgh (1998), ISBN 1-901663-02-7
Mackay – Mussel (eds.): Coin Price Guide to British coins 1066- Token Publishing Ltd, Axminster, Devon ([1])
Ian Halley Stewart. The Scottish Coinage, Spink & Son, London, 1955
"Coinage" – in Collins Encyclopedia of Scotland (ed. Keay & Keay, 1994)

[edit] See also

Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Coins of Scotland

[edit] External links

Scottish coins until 1707
Scottish Coins 1136–1707
Digital Library Numis Online books and articles on Scottish coinage

reminder: wars and assassinations happened because of money - but there is more:

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The American Revolution was the political upheaval during the last half of the 18th century in which thirteen colonies in North America joined together to break free from the British Empire, combining to become the United States of America. They first rejected the authority of the Parliament of Great Britain to govern them from overseas without representation, and then expelled all royal officials. By 1774, each colony had established a Provincial Congress, or an equivalent governmental institution, to govern itself, but still within the empire. The British responded by sending combat troops to re-impose direct rule. Through representatives sent in 1775 to the Second Continental Congress, the states joined together at first to defend their respective self-governance and manage the armed conflict against the British known as the American Revolutionary War (1775–83, also American War of Independence). Ultimately, the states collectively determined that the British monarchy, by acts of tyranny, could no longer legitimately claim their allegiance. They then severed ties with the British Empire in July 1776, when the Congress issued the United States Declaration of Independence, rejecting the monarchy on behalf of the new sovereign nation separate and external to the British Empire. The war ended with effective American victory in October 1781, followed by formal British abandonment of any claims to the United States with the Treaty of Paris in 1783.

The American Revolution was the result of a series of social, political, and intellectual transformations in early American society and government, collectively referred to as the American Enlightenment. Americans rejected the oligarchies common in aristocratic Europe at the time, championing instead the development of republicanism based on the Enlightenment understanding of liberalism. Among the significant results of the revolution was the creation of a democratically-elected representative government responsible to the will of the people. However, sharp political debates erupted over the appropriate level of democracy desirable in the new government, with a number of Founders fearing mob rule.

Many fundamental issues of national governance were settled with the ratification of the United States Constitution in 1788, which replaced the relatively weaker first attempt at a national government adopted in 1781, the Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. In contrast to the loose confederation, the Constitution established a strong federated government. The United States Bill of Rights (1791), comprising the first 10 constitutional amendments, quickly followed. It guaranteed many "natural rights" that were influential in justifying the revolution, and attempted to balance a strong national government with relatively broad personal liberties. The American shift to liberal republicanism, and the gradually increasing democracy, caused an upheaval of traditional social hierarchy and gave birth to the ethic that has formed a core of political values in the United States.^[1]^[2

The American Revolution was predicated by a number of ideas and events that, combined, led to a political and social separation of colonial possessions from the home nation and a coalescing of those former individual colonies into an independent nation.

Summary

The American revolutionary era began in 1763, after a series of victories by British forces at the conclusion of the French and Indian War ended the French military threat to British North American colonies at a cost to Britain of 150 million pounds (2011: US$22.4 Billion). Adopting the policy that the colonies should pay a token proportion of the costs associated with defending them, Britain imposed a series of direct taxes followed by other laws intended to demonstrate British authority, all of which proved extremely unpopular in America despite the level of taxation being only 1/26 that paid by British taxpayers. Because the colonies lacked elected representation in the governing British Parliament, many colonists considered the laws to be illegitimate and a violation of their rights as Englishmen. In 1772, groups of colonists began to create Committees of Correspondence, which would lead to their own Provincial Congresses in most of the colonies. In the course of two years, the Provincial Congresses or their equivalents rejected the Parliament and effectively replaced the British ruling apparatus in the former colonies, culminating in 1774 with the coordinating First Continental Congress.^[3] In response to protests in Boston over Parliament's attempts to assert authority, the British sent combat troops, dissolved local governments, and imposed direct rule by Royal officials. Consequently, the Colonies mobilized their militias, and fighting broke out in 1775. First ostensibly loyal to King George III and desiring to govern themselves while remaining in the empire, the repeated pleas by the First Continental Congress for royal intervention on their behalf with Parliament resulted in the declaration by the King that the states were "in rebellion", and the members of Congress were traitors. In 1776, representatives from each of the original 13 states voted unanimously in the Second Continental Congress to adopt a Declaration of Independence, which now rejected the British monarchy in addition to its Parliament, and established the sovereignty of the new nation. The Declaration established the United States, which was originally governed as a loose confederation through a representative democracy selected by state legislatures (see Second Continental Congress and Congress of the Confederation).

Ideology behind the Revolution

Main articles: American Enlightenment, Liberalism in the United States, Republicanism in the United States, and Freedom of religion in the United States

Further information: A Summary View of the Rights of British America, Letters from a Farmer in Pennsylvania, and Declaration of the Causes and Necessity of Taking Up Arms

The ideological movement known as the American Enlightenment was a critical precursor to the American Revolution. Chief among the ideas of the American Enlightenment were the concepts of liberalism, democracy, republicanism, and religious tolerance. Collectively, the belief in these concepts by a growing number of American colonists began to foster an intellectual environment which would lead to a new sense of political and social identity.

Locke and natural

In this c. 1772 portrait by John Singleton Copley, Adams points at the Massachusetts Charter, which he viewed as a constitution that protected the peoples' rights.^[4]

John Locke's (1632–1704) ideas on liberty greatly influenced the political thinking behind the revolution. John Locke's Two Treatises of Government, published in 1689, was especially influential. The theory of the "social contract" influenced the belief among many of the Founders that among the "natural rights" of man was the right of the people to overthrow their leaders, should those leaders betray the historic rights of Englishmen.^[5]^[6] In terms of writing state and national constitutions, the Americans heavily used Montesquieu's analysis of the "balanced" British Constitution.

Republicanism

A motivating force behind the revolution was the American embrace of a political ideology called "republicanism", which was dominant in the colonies by 1775. The republicanism was inspired by the "country party" in Britain, whose critique of British government emphasized that corruption was a terrible reality in Britain.^[7] Americans feared the corruption was crossing the Atlantic; the commitment of most Americans to republican values and to their rights, energized the revolution, as Britain was increasingly seen as hopelessly corrupt and hostile to American interests. Britain seemed to threaten the established liberties that Americans enjoyed.^[8] The greatest threat to liberty was depicted as corruption—not just in London but at home as well. The colonists associated it with luxury and, especially, inherited aristocracy, which they condemned.^[9]

The Founding Fathers were strong advocates of republican values, particularly Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Thomas Paine, George Washington, James Madison and Alexander Hamilton,^[10] which required men to put civic duty ahead of their personal desires. Men had a civic duty to be prepared and willing to fight for the rights and liberties of their countrymen and countrywomen. John Adams, writing to Mercy Otis Warren in 1776, agreed with some classical Greek and Roman thinkers in that "Public Virtue cannot exist without private, and public Virtue is the only Foundation of Republics." He continued:

"There must be a positive Passion for the public good, the public Interest, Honour, Power, and Glory, established in the Minds of the People, or there can be no Republican Government, nor any real Liberty. And this public Passion must be Superior to all private Passions. Men must be ready, they must pride themselves, and be happy to sacrifice their private Pleasures, Passions, and Interests, nay their private Friendships and dearest connections, when they Stand in Competition with the Rights of society."^[11]

For women, "republican motherhood" became the ideal, exemplified by Abigail Adams and Mercy Otis Warren; the first duty of the republican woman was to instill republican values in her children and to avoid luxury and ostentation.

Fusing republicanism and liberalismThomas Paine's best-seller pamphlet Common Sense appeared in January 1776, after the Revolution had started. It was widely distributed and loaned, and often read aloud in taverns, contributing significantly to spreading the ideas of republicanism and liberalism, bolstering enthusiasm for separation from Britain, and encouraging recruitment for the Continental Army. Paine provided a new and widely accepted argument for independence, by advocating a complete break with history. Common Sense is oriented to the future in a way that compels the reader to make an immediate choice. It offered a solution for Americans disgusted and alarmed at the threat of tyranny.^[12]

Impact of Great Awakening

Main article: First Great Awakening

Dissenting (i.e. Protestant, non-Church of England) churches of the day were the "school of democracy”^[13] President John Witherspoon of the College of New Jersey (now Princeton University) wrote widely circulated sermons linking the American Revolution to the teachings of the Hebrew Bible. Throughout the colonies dissenting Protestant congregations (Congregationalist, Baptist, and Presbyterian) preached Revolutionary themes in their sermons, while most Church of England ministers preached loyalty to the King.^[14] Religious motivation for fighting tyranny reached across socioeconomic lines to encompass rich and poor, men and women, frontiersmen and townsmen, farmers and merchants.^[13]

Historian Bernard Bailyn argues that the evangelism of the era challenged traditional notions of natural hierarchy by teaching that the Bible taught all men are equal, so that the true value of a man lies in his moral behavior, not his class. ^[15] Kidd argues that religious disestablishment, belief in a God as the guarantor of human rights, and shared convictions about sin, virtue, and divine providence worked together to unite rationalists and evangelicals and thus encouraged American defiance of the Empire. Emphasizing intense opposition to sending an Anglican bishop to the colonies, and anger at the pro-Catholic Quebec Act of 1774, Kidd argues that they reflected the long term impact of the Great Awakening, in terms of apocalyptic warnings religious egalitarianism, and anti‐Catholicism. The result he says was that by 1773, when battles over taxation without representation escalated, Patriots were prepared to defy British administrators.^[16]

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PRESIDENT ANDREW JACKSON - ASTOUNDING BIBLE PROPHECY

PRESIDENT ANDREW JACKSON. Andrew Jackson ... Let me issue and control a nation’s money and I ... owners of the Federal Reserve Bank put up nothing for this money.
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