REFERENCE SYSTEMS

The two way flow theory, which might also be designated as the unified theory, incorporates four different reference systems to the phenomena of our segue, which are as follows:

(1) A fixed reference system with Cartesian spatial coordinates;

(2) A constantly progressing reference system, with unity being the apparent but illusory velocity of light;

(3) A recessional reference system, going outward from the microcosm to the macrocosm, and going inward from the macrocosm to the microcosm; and

(4) A synchronous reference system that recognizes the illusory nature of the velocity of light, treats light as an acting force and not as radiant energy, and in which the synchronism of the reference system combines aspects of fixed, constantly progressing, and recessional reference systems.

The Cartesian reference system is a fixed system with spatial co-ordinates. The constantly progressive, the recessional, and synchronous are natural reference systems containing within the systems their own points of reference. A reference system need not have a rigid body of reference or a substitute for a rigid body to serve as a point of reference.

Every description of an event or the position of an object in space is based on the specification of the point on a rigid body, or body of reference, with which that event or object coincides. The Cartesian co-ordinates are used in physics as means of describing a position by means of numerical measures without using marked positions on the rigid body of reference. The system of co-ordinates consists of three plane surfaces perpendicular to each other and firmly attached to a rigid body.

Thus, the scene of an event is determined largely by the specification of the lengths of three perpendiculars or co-ordinates (x, y, z), which can be dropped from the scene of an event to the three plane surfaces. The lengths of the three co-ordinates are determined by a series of manipulations with rigid measuring rods according to the principles of Euclidian geometry. In practice, of course, the rigid surfaces that constitute the system of co-ordinates are generally not available, and the magnitudes of the co-ordinates are not actually determined by rigid rods but by indirect means.

In relation to the special theory of relativity, Einstein stated as follows:

Every description of events in space involves the use of a rigid body to which such events have to be referred. The resulting relationship takes for granted that the laws of Euclidian geometry hold for "distances," the "distance" being represented physically by means of the conventions of two marks on a rigid body.

In the special theory of relativity, by giving up the absolute character of simultaneity, although he never applied simultaneity to light as an acting force, Einstein was able to bring in harmony with the equivalence of all inertial systems (the special principle of relativity) the assumption of the constancy of the velocity of light in empty space. In general relativity, Einstein apparently did not recognize that he might have completely dispensed with a fixed system of Cartesian coordinates. In his formulation of the principle of equivalence of inertial and gravitational masses, he unnecessarily treats this principle as an extension of the equivalence of all inertial systems (the special principle of relativity) under a fixed reference system. Under general relativity, the Cartesian coordinates become covariant with respect to arbitrary continuous transformation of the coordinates. By not formulating a completely new reference system to replace the fixed Cartesian reference system, Einstein incorporated unneeded complexity to the general theory of relativity. Perhaps he did not realize that the Cartesian reference system was not the only possible reference system or he felt that scientists were used to the Cartesian co-ordinates, and it was wiser to revise them then to eliminate them altogether, but his failure to do so either led to, or was coupled with, or was the result of, his failure to recognize the real nature of light.

The fundamental law of Galilei-Newton mechanics is the law of inertia, which can be stated as follows:

A body sufficiently removed far from other bodies continues in a state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line.

In his special theory of relativity, Einstein used Galilean coordinates. He stated the special principle of relativity as follows:

If relative to K, K' is a uniformly moving co-ordinate system devoid of rotation, then natural phenomena run their course with respect to K' according to exactly the same general laws as with respect to K.

The Gaussian coordinates relate to a surface with both u and v curves. These u-curves must not intersect each other, and through each point of the surface one and only one curve must pass. Thus, a definable value of u belongs to every point on the surface. The v curves must satisfy the same conditions as the u-curves, and are provided with numbers in a corresponding manner. As a result, a value of u and a value of v belong to surface, let us say, of a table. These two numbers are Gaussian coordinates. For example, a point P on the surface of the table might have the Gaussian coordinates of u=3, v=1. Under general relativity the laws of nature of phenomena are the same regardless their motion, which Einstein stating the general principle of relativity as follows:

"All Gaussian co-ordinate systems are essentially equivalent for the formulation of the general laws of nature."

The exact formulation of the general principle of relativity set forth above, replaced a provisional definition that read as follows:

"All bodies of reference K, K', etc., are equivalent for the description of natural phenomena (formulation of the general laws of nature), whatever may be their state of motion."

Thus, Einstein used the Gauss co-ordinate system to take the place of a body of reference for the reason that in space-time description the use of a body of reference is generally not possible. In gravitational fields, there is no such thing as rigid bodies with Euclidian properties. The fictitious rigid body of reference is not usable in the general theory of relativity. Moreover, the motion of clocks is influenced by gravitational fields and a physical definition of time made directly with the aid of clocks does not have the same degree of plausibility in general relativity than in special relativity. Under general relativity, clocks satisfy only one condition, which is clock readings observed simultaneously on adjacent clocks in space differ from each other by an indefinitely small amount. In the view of Einstein, the great power possessed by the general principle of relativity is "the comprehensive limitation which is imposed on the laws of nature" under the general principle of relativity. Under the Unified Theory this comprehensive limitation is wholly unnecessary and is eliminated in its formulation of the general principle of relativity.

Under the Unified Theory there is no need for a body of reference or for the Gaussian co-ordinate system to serve in place of a rigid body of reference. Manifestation itself contains its own limitations, with no need for limitations to be imposed upon a general principle of relativity in order to describe natural phenomena. Our segue is necessarily limited by its microscopic and macrocosmic horizons of withdrawal, creating our segue as a finite unit of manifestations. All finite units of manifestations have self-contained limits. The belief-system contained in the formulation of the Cartesian co-ordinates and in variations of the Cartesian co-ordinates is no longer adequate to serve as a basis for mastery over natural phenomena. Our increased knowledge of natural phenomena requires us to discard many presuppositions that have been either disproved or shown to be inadequate to serve as an understandable description of natural phenomena.

A constantly progressing reference system is one based upon scalar movement of the reference system at the speed of light and is the one used in the reciprocal theory of Dewey Larson, who properly treats phenomena of our universe as being derived from attributes of motion (see Nothing But Motion by Dewey Larson: North Pacific Publishers, P.O.Box 13255, Portland, OR 97213). As the dots on an expanding balloon constantly recede from one another, the speed of the photon would not be a result of its velocity in reference to a fixed reference system, but would be a result of the fact that each photon, although stationary as to the progression of the natural reference system, moves away from other photons at the velocity of light under a fixed reference system.

As to a constantly progressive reference system, Dewey Larson stated as follows:

". . . the natural reference system in a universe of motion is not a stationary system but a moving system. . . .As seen in the context of a stationary system of reference, each absolute location is moving outward from its point of reference at a constant unit speed.

Because of this motion of the natural reference system with respect to the stationary systems, an object that has no independent motion, and is not subject to any external force, does not remain stationary in any system of fixed spatial coordinates. It remains in the same absolute location, and therefore moves outward at unit speed from its initial location, and from any object that occupies such a location."

In his discussion of scalar motion, Dewey stated as follows:

To illustrate the primary difference between scalar motion and the vectorial motion of our ordinary experience let us consider two cases which involve a moving object X between two points A and B on the surface of a balloon. In the first case, let us assume that the size of the balloon is maintained constant, and that the object X is something capable of independent motion. It has a specific direction in the context of a stationary spatial reference system, and if that direction is BA--that is, X is moving away from B--the distance XA decreases and the distance XB increases. In the second case, we will assume that X is a fixed spot on the balloon surface, and that its motion is due to expansion of the balloon. Here the motion is scalar. It is simply outward away from all other points on the balloon, and has no specific direction. In this case the motion away from B does not increase the distance XA. Both XB and XA increase. The motion of the natural reference system relative to any fixed spatial reference system is motion of this character. It has a positive scalar magnitude, but no inherent direction.

The Unified Theory agrees with Dewey Larson in believing that it is motion that gives rise to natural phenomena. But it differs from Larson in substantial ways. Much of what Larson would treat as motion would be treated under the Unified Theory as force, and a Larsonian universe is not infinitely divisible into patterns of centripetal and centrifugal forces.

A major contribution of the unified or two-way flow theory over general relativity by Einstein and over the reciprocal theory of Dewey Larson is its discovery of recessional and synchronous reference systems. A photon has an apparent velocity either under a fixed reference system or under a constantly progressing reference system. Under a fixed reference system, the photon is in motion at the speed of light relative to other phenomena of the reference system, and under a constantly progressing reference system, the photon is receding from our segue at the velocity of light for the reason that its location in space is receding from other locations in space at the velocity of light. Both a fixed reference system and a constantly expanding reference system presupposes either that light itself has an invariable velocity or that the speed of recession of the galaxies from one another is at an invariable speed.

Under a recessional reference system, the motion of the system is scalar and not vectorial, and in this sense similar to a constantly progressing reference system. Light is an active force but as an active force becomes a participant in the recessional movement of the system. Instead of the movement being a constantly progressing movement at the velocity of light, the reference system itself goes from zero velocity to the velocity of light. The reference system, termed a seque, under the unified theory, has limits that are at either microcosmic or macrocosmic horizons. As a reference system it is constantly expanding.

Light as an active force comes into manifestation from the effect upon each other of the centrifugal force from the microcosm and the centripetal force from the macrocosm. Thereafter, with equal probability, light become a participant in a recessional movement towards the microcosm or a recessional movement towards the macrocosm at constant accelerating speeds until withdrawal from the segue at either its macrocosmic or microcosmic horizons.

The increasing velocity is only relative to an observer in a given segue. Since motion is necessarily infinitely divisible, it is infinitely divisible into finite manifestations under which motion goes from zero velocity to that velocity falsely attributed as being the velocity of light but which is really that velocity that sets the horizon limits of a segue.

The recessional movement is a product of the energy-less interactions among centripetal and centrifugal forces. Energy may be transferred from one system to another by an energy-less means of transfer. See The Earth, Moon,and Tidal Waters (click here) for one means of such a transfer.

A synchronous reference system recognizes light as a form of inductive synchronism and recognizes the fallacy of treating light as a form of electromagnetic radiation. Instead it treats light as an acting force. Under a synchronous reference system light still originates and withdraws from our segue, with the delay between impulses at the transmitter and receiver being equal to the velocity of light under Maxwell's equations.The general principle of relativity under the synchronous reference system of the Unified Theory is as follows:

"All coordinate systems are essentially equivalent for the formulation of the general laws of nature."

Thus, the general principle of relativity is no longer limited to Gaussian co-ordinate systems.

The general principle of relativity as formulated by Einstein necessarily had to be limited to Gaussian co-ordinate systems as a result of Einstein`s treatment of light as radiant energy in a closed system.

The synchronous co-ordinate system and the Gauss co-ordinate system used by Einstein would both reach, for example, the conclusion that the the rotation of the perihelion of the planet Mercury around the sun is 43 seconds of arc per century. After taking into account the movement of the fixed stars and the effects of other planets on Mercury, Leverrier found in 1859 and Neucomb found in 1895 an unexplained perihelion movement of the orbit Mercury of 43 seconds an arc per century. Einstein properly explained that the unexplained perihelion movement was a result of the rotation of the perihelion around the sun. The Unified Theory would likewise determined that the unexplained perihelion movement was a result that the perihelion was itself engaged in a centripetal movement around the sum.

Under the Gauss co-ordinate system used by Einstein and under the improper assumption that light is radiant energy, Einstein assumed that rays of light from stars that pass close to a heavenly body would be be deviated towards that body. In 1919 in experiments made during a total eclipse his assumptions were treated as confirmed. The results, however, of the experiments would be equally consistent with the Unified Theory and the use of a synchronous reference system. Centripetal and centrifugal forces affect other centripetal and centrifugal forces, and the active force of light would clearly be affected the active force of an heavenly body. The deviation is not because radiant energy from one body is being deflected by the active force of gravity from another body but is a result of how active forces affect one another. Thus, Einstein recognized the affect of gravity as an active force but still treated light as radiant energy.

© Wilson Ogg

15. 180 FAQ about Big Bang Cosmology
16. Suprastring Theory
17. Physics: Suprastrings - A Theory of Everything?
18. Physics: A Theory of Moving Dimensions
19. The Void Theory by Steven L. Comee
20. Nat'l Acadamies Press: Einstein's Unfinished Symphony (2000)
21. Wave Interpretation of Special Relativity/Quantum Mechanics. Spassky Stanislav (Moscow)

© Copyright. Robert Grace. 2003